Why the Thinkers Think?

"Graha told me this, 'As I looked up at a bronze sculpture by Auguste Rodin, the statue of a nude male figure of heroic size sitting on a rock, Le Penseur, it made me curious about why the thinkers, think?'" Swara started a talk session when she came, after saying Basmalah and greeting with Salaam, when the Moon was still obscured by the monsoon mist.

"Swara carried on, 'Graha then said, ' The sculpture is nude, as Rodin wanted a heroic figure in the tradition of Michelangelo, to represent intellect as well as poetry, that's why Le Penseur was initially named Le Poète, and was part of a large commission begun in 1880 for a doorway surround called The Gates of Hell. Rodin based this on the early 14th century poem The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri, who wrote, '... of those who have rejected spiritual values by yielding to bestial appetites or violence, or by perverting their human intellect to fraud or malice against their fellowmen.' It's true what Dante said, the slightest mistake in thinking, we could be derailed into hell.

We all know that we think what we think when we think it because the brain wants to survive, but also humans are unique enough to generate thoughts and put their own beliefs on what those thoughts are. We also need to think positively, so that our hearts are still lighting up. Ibn Al-Qayyim said, 'If the heart is deprived of knowledge, it dies, but one may not feel the death of the heart.' From an Islamic perspective, ulemas advise that in thinking, a Muslim or Muslimah should maintain clarity of mind and cleanliness of the heart, and also, that the Islamic Aqeedah is nurtured within him or her.

So, I've tried to look for some perspektif about the Thinkers, which when we talk about them, is closely related to the Philosophers. Anecdotally, there has long been a recognition that the love of a parent for his or her child changes the parent in profound ways. But we don’t need to rely only on anecdotal evidence of the transformative effect of becoming a parent. Scientists have been able to trace such effects in the physiology of the brain.

Some contributors, Tonny Allan, R.G. Grant, Diana Loxley, Kirsty Seymour-Ure, Marcus Weeks, Iain Zaczek, Will Buckingham, Simon Blackburn, presented a study about the Philosophers, published in 2019. They grouped the Philosophers into 6 phases: Ancient, Medieval, Early Modern, Modern, 20th Century, and Today. In the Ancient phase, among others, Laozi, Confucius, Siddhartha Gautama, Diotima of Mantinea, Socrates, Diogenes of Sinope, Plato, Aristotle, Mencius, Zhuangzi, Epicurus, Marcus Aurelius, Nagarjuna, Augustine of Hippo, and Hypatia. Now let's talk a little bit about them according to the contributors.

Laozi is traditionally said to have been the author of the Daodejing, or The Classic of the Way and of Virtue, and the founder of the philosophical system later known as Daoism. According to legend, the sage Laozi [Old Master] was an older contemporary of Confucius and lived in the 6th century bce. The historian Sima Qian claims that Laozi worked as the keeper of archives in the Zhou court, where he was once visited by Confucius, who consulted him about li [ceremonies and rituals].

Toward the end of his life, it is said that Laozi became weary of the corruption and political machinations of the court and left for the western frontier, riding a water buffalo. At the gate, he was stopped by a guard, who persuaded him to write down his words of wisdom. Laozi obliged—the result was his book the Daodejing. The aged sage then mounted his water buffalo and rode westward, never to be seen again.

Confucius, 551bce–479bce, was arguably the most influential teacher in Chinese history. A humanist, he was concerned with how to live a virtuous life and how to establish a society built upon that virtue. The name by which Confucius is known in the West is the Latinized version of the Chinese Kong Fuzi, or Master Kong. He was born in the state of Lu in the northeast of China, in present-day Shandong province, and lived in what is known as the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history. This period, which is named after the ancient history book called the Chunqiu, or Spring and Autumn Annals, stretched from 770bce to 481 bce. It was a time of political upheaval and uncertainty, during which a number of small states competed for supremacy. Confucius regretted this fragmentation, and his philosophy continually looked back to the earlier Western Zhou dynasty (c.1046–771bce) as a time of unity and stability and sought to recover this past to restore what he saw as the virtue of former times.

Siddhartha Gautama, c.480–c.400bce, who was later known as the Buddha, or 'awakened one,' was an Indian philosopher who was born in the 5th century bce. His teaching focuses on overcoming dissatisfaction with everyday life.

Contemporary scholarship suggests that Siddhartha Gautama, was born in the 5th century bce and died at the age of 80. The precise dates of his life remain somewhat controversial, but there is little disagreement about the fact that he was a member of the Shakya clan, who lived on what is now a border between India and Nepal, and that he was brought up in relative wealth and comfort.

At that time, India was a center of philosophical and religious activity. The region was also undergoing urbanization, with rapid increases in trade and travel, and the emergence of large and very powerful states. Following Siddhartha’s death, this culminated in the rise of the Mauryan Empire. The period starting in the 7th century bce also saw a notable growth in groups of religious practitioners and sramanas [one who labours, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious purpose)], or wandering philosophers.

It is hard to disentangle history and legend, but it is generally agreed that Siddhartha left his home and family to become a sramana, and that he apprenticed himself to a number of teachers. Eventually, he had an experience of bodhi, or 'awakening,' which he described as a liberation from suffering or dissatisfaction with life. Following this experience, he spent the rest of his life teaching. After his death, he left behind many thousands of followers.

Women had almost no legal or political rights in Ancient Greece. Despite their low status in society, some women were accepted and respected by their male peers. Pythagoras, for example, treated women (including the philosopher Theano) as equals to men in his school, and Plato is known to have had two female students, Lasthenia of Mantinea and Axiothea of Philesia (who dressed as a man when she attended the Academy to avoid being considered a hetaira [one of a class of professional independent courtesans of ancient Greece who, besides developing physical beauty, cultivated their minds and talents to a degree far beyond that allowed to the average Attic woman]).

One of the very few female philosophers to achieve recognition in classical Greece, Diotima of Mantinea is credited with inspiring Socrates and providing Plato with the basis for his concept of 'Platonic love.'

What little is known of Diotima’s life comes from Socrates’ description of his discussion with her, as recounted by Plato in the Symposium. While some scholars have doubted Diotima’s existence as an actual historical person, almost all of the characters in Plato’s dialogues represent well-known people in contemporary Athens, and it is highly unlikely that Diotima is an exception.

Other later writers also refer to Diotima as a historical rather than a fictional character. Socrates probably met Diotima in around 450–440bce, when he was in his 20s. He describes her as a priestess of Mantinea, a town in Arcadia, who was renowned for her wisdom and powers of prophecy. Socrates, however, was struck more by Diotima’s intellect than by her prophetic abilities. Like most Greek philosophers of the time, he was interested primarily in the scientific nature of the world around him, but his conversation with Diotima persuaded him to turn his attention from the outside world to human concerns—in particular, to the concepts of love and beauty.

The meeting with Diotima had a life-changing impact on Socrates, since it determined the philosophical path that he was to take, which in turn set the agenda for subsequent Greek thinkers.

Plato portrays Socrates as speaking passionately about Diotima’s ideas. Socrates delivered his lessons about love via his dialogue with Diotima. The main argument is that the energy of erotic attraction (personified by the god Eros) can be used in a spiritual and philosophical exercise that eventually leads to the contemplation of God.

Plato described Socrates, c.469–399 bce, as the 'gadfly' of Athens, a persistent irritant challenging the customs of the city-state. Derided for his teachings, he was sentenced to death for impiety and corrupting the city’s youth. Socrates was born in Alopece, a suburb of Athens, around 469 bce. Over his lifetime, Socrates saw the Athenian Empire defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War and subjected to cruelty and oppression by the oligarchs who followed.

Socrates’ father, Sophroniscus, was a stonemason, and his mother, Phaenarete, a midwife. Despite their humble status, they ensured that their son received a good education that included the study of poetry, music, and athletics. Sophroniscus also taught him the family trade, but Socrates showed more interest in talking to people in the agora the main meeting place—in Athens.

As he grew up, Socrates became a well-known figure in the city, and at the age of 18, he took on the duties of a male citizen, which included membership in the democratic governing assembly and making himself available for military service. Around this time, it is believed that Socrates sought guidance in philosophy from teachers, including Parmenides, Anaxagoras, and the priestess Diotima.

Through his discussions in the agora, Socrates developed his reputation as a philosopher and gradually gained a following, largely composed of young men from the upper class of Athenian society. Beyond his followers, however, he drew little respect as a citizen and was even seen by much of the public as ridiculous.

Athenian culture valued beauty—especially male physical beauty—and Socrates did not meet the classical criteria. He was short and squat,\ with a snub nose, bulging eyes, and a potbelly, and took no interest whatsoever in personal grooming or clothing. This led to his portrayal by the playwright Aristophanes as a comical character with his head in the clouds—a figure who was immediately recognizable to theater audiences.

Socrates is often contrasted with all the Greek philosophers who preceded his influence, collectively known as the pre-Socratics. These philosophers were primarily concerned with finding the underlying principles of the natural world—the metaphysical nature of the universe.

Socrates chose instead to focus his attention on examining the very human concerns of justice, virtue, beauty, and so on. It is, however, an oversimplification to state that the pre-Socratic philosophers took no interest whatsoever in moral and political philosophy.

After Athens had been defeated by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War, its democracy was replaced—for a period of around 8 months—by the rule of the Thirty Tyrants, a group of ruthless oligarchs who ran Athens as a puppet Spartan state. During their rule, many native Athenians fled the city, although Socrates remained there—it was known that he admired some aspects of Spartan rule, and a number of the Tyrants had been his students. Moreover, his great friend Alcibiades was associated with the Spartans and had even temporarily defected to their side.

When democracy was reestablished in Athens, an amnesty was proclaimed to prevent reprisals against those who had held Spartan sympathies. However, the court was persuaded to prosecute Socrates on the nonpolitical, but no less serious, charges of disrespect of the city’s gods and the criminal corruption of young people. For this, Socrates was sentenced to death but was given an opportunity to escape punishment. As a believer in due process, however, and on principle not willing to give up his philosophical investigations, he famously chose to accept the verdict of his fellow citizens and carry out the execution by drinking a toxic potion containing hemlock.

Plato, c.428–c.348 bce, attended Socrates’ trial and subsequently wrote the 'Apology.' Plato’s impact on the development of Western philosophy is virtually unrivaled. He set out his ideas in the form of around 30 dialogues that present and contrast a range of philosophical viewpoints. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his pupil Aristotle, Plato is generally regarded as representing the apex of Greek philosophy.

In his lifetime, Athens was the cultural and intellectual capital of the Eastern Mediterranean, but it was also the center of severe political upheaval. Plato was born shortly after the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 bce), which saw conflict between Athens and Sparta threaten the Athenian democracy.

Plato’s family was one of the wealthiest in Athens and boasted an ancestry of famous statesmen and nobles. His father, Ariston, claimed to be descended from the kings of Athens and Messenia, and his mother, Perictione, came from the family of Solon, the architect of the first democratic constitution of Athens.

One of four children, Plato received the education typical of an Athenian aristocrat, taking lessons in grammar, mathematics, music, and athletics with the finest tutors Athens could offer. He was an eager and exceptional student and is said to have been especially proficient in wrestling. Yeap, Plato was a wrestler.

According to some sources, it was his wrestling teacher who gave him the nickname 'Platon' (from the Greek word 'platýs' meanings 'broad') on account of his physique; other stories say that he earned the alias because of his facial features or even the breadth of his knowledge and skills. Whatever the origin, the name Platon (anglicized to Plato) stuck so firmly that we cannot now be certain of his given name—his true name was supposedly Aristocles, meaning 'best reputation.' According to Diogenes Laërtius, he was named after his grandfather, as was common in Athenian society.

As he grew up, he took an interest in philosophy and no doubt came across the ideas of the great pre-Socratic philosophers Pythagoras, Parmenides, and especially Heraclitus, who had taught his tutor Cratylus.

Perhaps inspired by his experience of the Pythagorean community and of teaching Dion in Syracuse, Plato began to establish a school in Athens. He had inherited a plot of land just outside the

city walls in the Grove of Hecademus (or Academus), next to a gymnasium, which he felt was ideal for informal gatherings of students. His school, later known as the Academy, was run like a private club. Membership was open to all those (including women) suitably qualified in the disciplines of mathematics and philosophy. It was not a school in the sense of a place of instruction, nor did it promote a specific doctrine; it was an institution for the exchange of ideas, with Plato and senior members guiding the debate.

Plato’s settled life at the Academy was interrupted in 367bce, when Dionysius I was succeeded by his son, Dionysius II. Dion asked Plato to return to Syracuse to tutor the young ruler; Plato agreed, but was placed under house arrest in Sicily. With some persuasion, Dionysius released Plato, who returned to Athens. A few years later, now an old man, Plato was invited back to Syracuse; shortly after his arrival, he was again arrested, but managed to escape. Dion was furious and launched an attack on Sicily, taking control until he was assassinated. Not surprisingly, Plato became disillusioned with politics; he devoted the last years of his life to the Academy and his writing, including the more reflective dialogues of his 'late period,' in which the Socrates character is either often reduced to a minor role or omitted completely.

There are various accounts of Plato’s death—for example, with a girl playing a flute for him by his deathbed—but all that is reliably known is that he died in Athens, aged around 80.

Aristotle, 384–322 bce, presented a style of philosophy in distinct contrast to that of his mentor Plato and established an empirical approach that has influenced philosophers and scientists to the present day.

In Aristotle’s lifetime, Greek history was dominated by the extraordinary expansion of the empire under the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great (356–323bce). By the time he came to power at the age of 20, Alexander’s father Philip II had already extended Macedonian influence across much of Greece, and Alexander swiftly completed the process. In place of the warring city-states of Greece, there was now a unified Hellenistic state, from which he extended his empire across Persia into India and into North Africa. By the time he was in his thirties, Alexander ruled the most powerful empire in the world. At the height of his success, he developed a fever and died in Babylon, aged 32.

Unlike the other two great Athenian philosophers, Socrates and Plato, Aristotle was not born in Athens itself, but was a native of Macedon in the northwest of Greece. His father, Nicomachus, was the physician of King Amyntas of Macedon, and Aristotle was born in Stagira on the Halkidiki peninsula, not far from the royal court. It is likely that he spent some time in the palace with his father andwas known to the royal family; this connection with the Macedon rulers was to figure largely in his later life Aristotle’s mother and father died when he was in his teens, and the boy’s education was then overseen by his guardian, Proxenus of Atarneus, a family friend who was married to Aristotle’s elder sister. Proxenus realized that the young man was an exceptional scholar, and when he reached the age of about 17, sent him to Athens to continue his studies at Plato’s Academy, which by then had established itself as the foremost school in Greece for mathematics and philosophy Aristotle thrived in the Academy’s atmosphere of scholarship and proved himself the most brilliant of Plato’s students. Plato encouraged debate and original thinking, and Aristotle gradually discovered that he was not always in agreement with his mentor’s theories. Despite their differences of opinion, however, the two must have established a good working relationship and probably a close friendship—because Aristotle remained at the Academy until Plato died, some 20 years after Aristotle first arrived.

Philip of Macedon was anxious to repair relations with Aristotle, and in 343bce, invited him to his court to become the head of the royal academy, whose students included his son Alexander, as well as children of other royal families. The philosopher was eventually persuaded, but only after Philip agreed to completely rebuild the town of Stagira. Philip had razed Stagira soon after coming to the throne.

Aristotle remained in Macedon for the following 8 years and, for about 2 of those years, taught the young prince, who was later to become known throughout the world as Alexander the Great.

When Alexander died suddenly in 323bce, far from feeling more secure, Aristotle found himself even more threatened. The proMacedonian government of Athens was overthrown, and widespread anti-Macedonian feeling grew.

It was well known that Aristotle was a Macedonian and that he had connections with the Macedonian royal family (and with Alexander in particular), making him an obvious target for persecution. A case against him on trumped-up charges of impiety was being prepared, but before he could be charged, he fled to his mother’s estate in Chalcis, on the island of Euboea in 322bce. His reported parting shot—in which he referenced Athens’ treatment of Socrates—was that he would not give Athens the opportunity to sin twice against philosophy. That same year, he died of a stomach illness, having requested in his will to be buried next to his wife.

As arguably the first true scientist in history and the first to teach students systematically, his status as a philosopher and teacher is without equal.

Diogenes of Sinope was well known in Athens for his often outrageous challenging of conventions and for conspicuously living the austere and virtuous life advocated in his Cynic philosophy. Diogenes, 412/404 bce–323 bce, was the epitome of the school of philosophical thought that came to be known as Cynicism; in fact, his epithet, Kynikos, provided its name. Its basic principle—that virtue and happiness can be achieved by living an ascetic life in accord with nature—was set out by Antisthenes, but Diogenes’ uncompromising interpretation of the principle marked the beginning of the philosophical movement. Many other philosophers were attracted to Cynicism, including Diogenes’ disciple Crates of Thebes, whose student Zeno of Citium developed the Stoic philosophy It is not known if Diogenes committed any of his ideas to writing, as no texts by him have been discovered. What has survived, however, is his reputation, together with a collection of anecdotes about his life and work, recounted by later biographers, such as Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus. These paint a picture of a man who lived strictly according to his principles, did not suffer fools gladly, and often made his philosophical points with mischievous wit.

Diogenes was among the thinkers who became known as the 'Cynics'—from the Greek kynikos, meaning 'doglike'—who rejected social convention and etiquette in favor of living a more simple and natural existence.

Mencius, or Mengzi, c. 371–c.289 bce, is one of the foremost Confucian philosophers. He is particularly famous for his emphasis on innate goodness and the role of the environment in the formation of character.

Zhuangzi, c.370bce–c.290bce, or 'Master Zhuang' was the author of a number of Daoist parables and dialogues. Together with other works by his followers, known collectively as the Zhuangzi, they became a classic text of Chinese philosophy.

Epicurus’s liberal materialism has been widely misunderstood as a brand of self-indulgent pleasure seeking. This is quite contrary to the philosophy he advocated in his school known as 'the Garden.' For Epicurus, c.341bce–270 bce, the object of life was to live happily. But rather than the pursuit of physical pleasure, he advocated moderation and tranquility; true pleasure, he argued, is freedom from pain and fear, and in particular the fear of death.

Like Democritus, he believed that there is nothing in the cosmos except atoms and empty space, and so denied the existence of an immaterial, immortal soul; from this, he concluded that “When we are, death is not come, and, when death is come, we are not”—so death is nothing, and is nothing to be feared.

When Marcus Aurelius, 121–180 ce, became Roman emperor in 161ce, he was known for his scholarship in Stoic philosophy, was nicknamed 'the Philosopher,' and was hailed as the fulfillment of Plato’s ideal of a philosopher-king.

Nagarjuna, c.150–c.250 ce, was one of the most important and influential philosophers in the Buddhist tradition. He was the founder of the Madhyamaka or 'Middle Way' school, which developed from commentaries on his works. Nagarjuna took seriously the Buddha’s exhortation to find a 'middle way' between extremes— an idea that, over the years, has had many interpretations.

Augustine of Hippo, 354–430 ce, a hugely influential Christian philosopher and theologian in his time, Augustine remained an inspirational figure throughout the Middle Ages, when two religious orders were named after him. In his autobiographical work, Confessions, Augustine credited Ambrose—then the bishop of Milan—as the major inspiration for his conversion. Like Augustine, Ambrose came from a secular background. His father was a praetorian prefect of Gaul and, for a brief spell, he himself served as the consul of Milan. He was appointed bishop in 374 ce and gained renown for his campaigns against Arian heretics and for the quality of his sermons. It was these that influenced Augustine. Paraphrasing verses from the Psalms, Augustine wrote of Ambrose, '[H]is golden tongue never tired of dispensing the richness of your corn, the joy of your oil, and the sober intoxication of your wine.'

Hypatia, c.355/370–415/416 ce, was the foremost astronomer and mathematician of her day. She was also a recognized Neoplatonist philosopher and teacher known for her philanthropy, charisma, and love of learning. In a sense, there are two Hypatias: one a real woman, the other a glamorous figure whose legend has evolved over the centuries. The second Hypatia was beautiful, virtuous, and a lifelong virgin; she was the last great thinker of antiquity, the last pagan; and her violent death resembled the martyrdom of a saint. Despite considerable speculation, it is unclear whether Hypatia wrote anything on philosophy. However, she was certainly acclaimed as a highly gifted Neoplatonist teacher.

There are several more names, including Thales of Miletus, Mahavira, Kannada, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, Mozi, Democritus, Yang Zhu, Sun Tzu, Gongsun Long, Xun Kuang, Han Fei, Wang Chong, Plotinus and Pythagoras.

Pythagoras, c.570–c.495 bce, a mathematician and mystic, was born on the island of Samos in the eastern Aegean Sea. Pythagoras taught a doctrine of reincarnation and transmigration of the soul (in Greek, metempsychosis) and believed that numbers (numerical ratios and mathematical axioms) were the basic constituents of the universe. According to him, the Earth was a sphere surrounded by heavenly bodies that move in wider spheres that are related numerically, like the notes of harmonious music.

Pythagoras is credited with inventing mathematical deduction, in which new truths are evolved from self-evident principles. He may have died in a violent attack on his community by the people of Croton.

There are many academic pursuits we use to investigate ourselves and our world. Sciences such as biology, chemistry, and physics do this; likewise humanities such as classics or history, linguistics or archaeology. Philosophy can also be said to do it, but in a different way. Its focus is not on our material or physical nature, nor on our wars or politics or artefacts, but on the ways in which we think about ourselves and our world, and the implications of these ways of thinking for our everyday lives.

Human consciousness forces us to think and reason, to use strategies of trial and error, to draw inferences and make predictions, and so to sift truth from falsity. These processes tell us who we are and where we are in the universe, and so we need to understand their inner workings, their scope, and their limits. We also need to set ourselves ways of living in the world as we understand it. We choose and act, evaluate options, and consider our aims and priorities. Some philosophers have concentrated more on the first—theoretical—set of issues. Others, moral and political philosophers, have thought more about the second set of issues—the practical problems of life.'"

Swara was silence for a moment, then she said, "I think, for this session, it's enough for us to talk about the Ancient philosophers. In the next session, I'll tell you what Graha told me about philosophers in the Medieval Ages."

Swara took her leave while singing,

We climb the highest mountain

we'll make the desert bloom

we're so ingenious

we can walk on the moon

But when I hear of how

the forests have died

saltwater wells in my eyes *)

"And Allah knows best."

Citations & Reference:
- DK London, Philosophers - Their Lives and Works, Cobaltid
- Guy P. Harrison, Think - Why You Should Question Everything, Prometheus Book
- Dr. Carol S. Dweck, Mindset - Changing the Way You Think to Fulfil Your Potential, Robinson
*) "Saltwater" written by Julian Lennon, Mark Spiro & Leslie Spiro

[Session 2]

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