The Beauty of Knowledge : Islamic Perspective

"Knowledge is the worship of the heart, the secret of its life, and the source of its power, " said the Moon when she came after saying Basmalah and greeting with Salaam. It was her first time appearence, since she was covered by fog in the rainy season.

Then she proceeded, "In Islamic perspective, Knowledge gains a central position. Allah says,

وَلَا تَقْفُ مَا لَيْسَ لَكَ بِهٖ عِلْمٌ ۗاِنَّ السَّمْعَ وَالْبَصَرَ وَالْفُؤَادَ كُلُّ اُولٰۤىِٕكَ كَانَ عَنْهُ مَسْـُٔوْلًا

'And do not pursue[i.e., do not assume and do not say] that of which you have no knowledge. Indeed, the hearing, the sight and the heart - about all those [one] will be questioned.' [QS. Al-Isra' (17):36]

Those who do not have knowledge are instructed to ask those who know. Allah says,

وَمَآ اَرْسَلْنَا قَبْلَكَ اِلَّا رِجَالًا نُّوْحِيْٓ اِلَيْهِمْ فَسْـَٔلُوْٓا اَهْلَ الذِّكْرِ اِنْ كُنْتُمْ لَا تَعْلَمُوْنَ

'And We sent not before you, [O Muḥammad], except men to whom We revealed [the message], so ask the people of the message [i.e., former scriptures] if you do not know.' [QS. Al-Anbiya (21):7]

The revelation is the main source of knowledge. It includes metaphysics and positions on many matters concerning knowledge. The whole revelation is truth and truth is knowledge. Therefore, all Muslims, without exception,, are encouraged to seek religious knowledge. The Prophet (ﷺ) said,

طَلَبُ الْعِلْمِ فَرِيضَةٌ عَلَى كُلِّ مُسْلِمٍ

'Seeking [religious] knowledge is a duty upon every Muslim ....' [HR Ibn Majah; Sahih according to Al-Albani]

After knowing the Truth (Al-Haq), men also need Guidance (Hidayah), and the Revelation is guidance. Allah says,

شَهْرُ رَمَضَانَ الَّذِيْٓ اُنْزِلَ فِيْهِ الْقُرْاٰنُ هُدًى لِّلنَّاسِ وَبَيِّنٰتٍ مِّنَ الْهُدٰى وَالْفُرْقَانِۚ

'Ramaḍan is the month in which the Quran was revealed as a guide for humanity with clear proofs of guidance and the standard to distinguish between right and wrong ....' [QS. Al-Baqarah (2):185]

Revelation includes both the Quran and authentic Sunnah. Muslims are guided in the Quran to follow these two authorities. Allah says,

مَنْ يُّطِعِ الرَّسُوْلَ فَقَدْ اَطَاعَ اللّٰهَ

'He who obeys the Messenger has obeyed Allah ....' [QS. An-Nisa (4):80]

Besides knowing from the Revelation (al-Wahy), the use of Senses (Hawas), Intellect (Reason and Heart, al-aql wal-qalb), historical experience (siyahah), and meditating on natural and physical world (kaun) are given high importance. And special guidance (hidayatu subul) are given to those who struggle (jihad) in the way of Allah; understanding and wisdom (al tafakuh wal alhikmah) is given to those whom Allah pleased; prophetic dreams (alruya alsadiqah), insight (firasah), illumination (mukashafah) and inspiration (ilham) are also means of knowledge.

The Quran puts the intellect at very high stage in understanding and as a means of knowledge. The intellect is the combination of a sound mind and a clean heart. The Quran uses sometimes reasoning and sometimes heart for understanding. It seems there is a connection between the heart and reasoning and the co-functioning of them could be named as intellect. The Quran encourages people to reason, Allah says,

وَهُوَ الَّذِيْ يُحْيٖ وَيُمِيْتُ وَلَهُ اخْتِلَافُ الَّيْلِ وَالنَّهَارِۗ اَفَلَا تَعْقِلُوْنَ

'And it is He who gives life and causes death, and His is the alternation of the night and the day. Then will you not reason?' [QS. Al-Mu'minun (23):80]

The Holy Quran encourages us to use our ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize what we read for critically developing an effective and suitable response. Prophet Abraham, alaihissalam, persuaded his tribe to use their critical thinking capabilities for discovering their fault of worshiping stone sculptures. He used his critical thinking to assist his tribe in identifying their fault deity. His tribe admitted their wrongdoing, and Abraham said, 'Then do you worship instead of Allah that which does not benefit you at all or harm you?' Abraham persuaded his tribe to use their critical thinking to discover their high crime against themselves, and then he said,

اُفٍّ لَّكُمْ وَلِمَا تَعْبُدُوْنَ مِنْ دُوْنِ اللّٰهِ ۗاَفَلَا تَعْقِلُوْنَ

'Uff to you and to what you worship instead of Allāh. Then will you not use reason?' [QS. Al-Anbiya (21):67]

Reflecting on the dialogues of Abraham, we should learn to use our critical thinking capabilities and to focus on the subject matter.

Another example, the dialog between the tyrant Pharaoh and a believing man from the family of Pharaoh who concealed his faith, illustrated the power of critical debate, despite the overwhelmed power of the Pharaoh. The man made an essential question and said, '"Do you kill a man [merely] because he says, 'My Lord is Allāh' while he has brought you clear proofs from your Lord? And if he should be lying, then upon him is [the consequence of] his lie; but if he should be truthful, there will strike you some of what he promises you. Indeed, Allāh does not guide one who is a transgressor and a liar.' [QS. Ghafir (40):28]

The man focused on the fact of believing in Allah or accepting Pharaoh as a god. All wise people can learn from the dialog between that man and Pharaoh. However, you might think that the dialogue between that man and Pharaoh, thousands of years ago, is not suitable to our time and place; and in a spontaneous response, you think you are correct. However, if you compare the human behavior of the Pharaoh to the practice of current tyrants, you would discover an astonishing similarity and almost identical behavior. Except Pharaoh used swords for killing innocent people, while now aggressors use his power, either in the form of missiles or other bullets to kill characters or even imprison for hundreds of innocent people, and they would commit crimes regardless of the methods or political beliefs. Critical thinking and anger are at opposite poles.

The Quran encourages people to learn from the history and one of the visible sign of the past history is the signs left by them which could be seen even today as archeological structures and remains. These signs are leading milestones for a pondering person to think deep about the human history. Though many stories of the past nations and the events of history are even mentioned in the Quran, however, the Quran encourages looking at the physical signs of the past civilizations for understanding and lessons. Allah says,

قُلْ سِيْرُوْا فِى الْاَرْضِ فَانْظُرُوْا كَيْفَ كَانَ عَاقِبَةُ الْمُجْرِمِيْنَ

'Say, [O Muḥammad], 'Proceed [i.e., travel] through the land and observe how was the end of the criminals.' [QS. An-Naml (27):69]

Allah also says,

قَدْ خَلَتْ مِنْ قَبْلِكُمْ سُنَنٌۙ فَسِيْرُوْا فِى الْاَرْضِ فَانْظُرُوْا كَيْفَ كَانَ عَاقِبَةُ الْمُكَذِّبِيْنَ

'Similar situations [as yours] have passed on before you, so proceed throughout the earth and observe how was the end of those who denied.' [QS. Ali Imran (3):137]

The Quran encourages people to look at the natural and physical signs to understand. The most of the understanding from these signs is about the higher knowledge of metaphysics and monotheism. Allah says,

وَفِى الْاَرْضِ اٰيٰتٌ لِّلْمُوْقِنِيْنَۙ

وَفِيْٓ اَنْفُسِكُمْ ۗ اَفَلَا تُبْصِرُوْنَ

وَفِى السَّمَاۤءِ رِزْقُكُمْ وَمَا تُوْعَدُوْنَ

فَوَرَبِّ السَّمَاۤءِ وَالْاَرْضِ اِنَّهٗ لَحَقٌّ مِّثْلَ مَآ اَنَّكُمْ تَنْطِقُوْنَ

'And on the earth are signs for the certain [in faith]. And in yourselves. Then will you not see? And in the heaven is your provision and whatever you are promised. Then by the Rabb of the heaven and earth, indeed, it is truth - just as [sure as] it is that you are speaking.' [QS. Adh-Dhariyat (51):20-23]

Allah says,

اَفَلَمْ يَسِيْرُوْا فِى الْاَرْضِ فَتَكُوْنَ لَهُمْ قُلُوْبٌ يَّعْقِلُوْنَ بِهَآ اَوْ اٰذَانٌ يَّسْمَعُوْنَ بِهَاۚ فَاِنَّهَا لَا تَعْمَى الْاَبْصَارُ وَلٰكِنْ تَعْمَى الْقُلُوْبُ الَّتِيْ فِى الصُّدُوْرِ

'So have they not traveled through the earth and have hearts by which to reason and ears by which to hear? For indeed, it is not eyes that are blinded, but blinded are the hearts which are within the breasts.' [QS. Al-Hajj (22):46]

The Quran states that those who struggle in the way of Allah, will be guided. Allah says,

وَالَّذِيْنَ جَاهَدُوْا فِيْنَا لَنَهْدِيَنَّهُمْ سُبُلَنَاۗ وَاِنَّ اللّٰهَ لَمَعَ الْمُحْسِنِيْنَ ࣖ

'And those who strive for Us - We will surely guide them to Our ways [various ways and means to attain the acceptance and pleasure of Allah]. And indeed, Allah is with the doers of good.' [QS. Al-Ankabut (29):69]

The higher intelligence (al-tafakuh) which can come as God-given and diligence and wisdom (al-hikmah) are also means of knowledge as they refer to the faculty of thinking which is at the higher degree of criticality and creativity. The right knowledge, molded within the framework of the right worldview, is the prerequisite of the right wisdom. The word 'Hikmah' is derived from the verb 'hakama', which means 'to control, dominate, govern and direct.' Derived from the same root are the words 'hukumah' (government), 'hukm' (administration, authority and control) 'hakam' (judge) as well as 'hakim' (commander and leader). The Prophet (ﷺ) said,

الْكَيِّسُ مَنْ دَانَ نَفْسَهُ وَعَمِلَ لِمَا بَعْدَ الْمَوْتِ وَالْعَاجِزُ مَنْ أَتْبَعَ نَفْسَهُ هَوَاهَا وَتَمَنَّى عَلَى اللَّهِ

'The wise man is one who holds himself accountable and performs good deeds to prepare for what comes after death. The foolish man is one who gives into his lowly desires and seeks their indulgence from Allah.' [Jami` at-Tirmidhi; Hasan according to At-Tirmidhi]

Hence, a wise person is so accomplished and knowledgeable that he always adjudicates and acts upon things in such a way that he seems as though in full control of and governing all the situations and circumstances he might find himself in. Conversely, wisdom is not to generate and articulate excessively abstract and grandiloquent ideas and theories without translating them into the realm of palpable realities and experiences. Nor is wisdom to reason and speak about things nobody—including the thinker and speaker himself—can fully understand, let alone benefit from.

Good and true dreams are also a source of knowledge; they can be glad tidings from Allah. The Prophet (ﷺ) said,

الرُّؤْيَا الْحَسَنَةُ مِنَ الرَّجُلِ الصَّالِحِ جُزْءٌ مِنْ سِتَّةٍ وَأَرْبَعِينَ جُزْءًا مِنَ النُّبُوَّةِ

'A good dream (that comes true) of a righteous man is one of forty-six parts of prophetism.' [Sahih Al-Bukhari]

Dreams are seen as a series of imaginations that may befall a person during his sleep, and these dreams differ in sequence and logic from real life. Dreams are also considered as a means of manifesting and fulfilling what the soul is currently desiring, as well as its motives. In Islamic perspective, there are three types of dreams, as the Prophet (ﷺ) said,

الرُّؤْيَا ثَلاَثٌ فَرُؤْيَا حَقٌّ وَرُؤْيَا يُحَدِّثُ بِهَا الرَّجُلُ نَفْسَهُ وَرُؤْيَا تَحْزِينٌ مِنَ الشَّيْطَانِ فَمَنْ رَأَى مَا يَكْرَهُ فَلْيَقُمْ فَلْيُصَلِّ

'Dreams are of three types: The true dream, dreams about something that has happened to the man himself, and dreams in which the Shaitan frightens someone. So whoever sees what he dislikes, then he should get up and perform Salah.' [Jami` at-Tirmidhi; Sahih]

Furthermore, the Prophet (ﷺ) said,

لرُّؤْيَا الصَّالِحَةُ مِنْ اللَّهِ وَالْحُلْمُ مِنْ الشَّيْطَانِ فَمَنْ رَأَى شَيْئًا يَكْرَهُهُ فَلْيَنْفِثْ عَنْ شِمَالِهِ ثَلَاثًا وَلْيَتَعَوَّذْ مِنْ الشَّيْطَانِ فَإِنَّهَا لَا تَضُرُّهُ وَإِنَّ الشَّيْطَانَ لَا يَتَرَاءَى بِي

'The good dream is from Allah and the bad dream is from Satan. Whoever sees something he dislikes, let him blow to his left side three times and seek refuge from Satan. Verily, it will not harm him and Satan cannot appear in my form.' [Muttafaqun Alayhi (authenticity agreed upon) according to Al-Bukhari and Muslim]

The believers are also given a special insight into matters. The Prophet (ﷺ) said,

اتَّقُوا فِرَاسَةَ الْمُؤْمِنِ فَإِنَّهُ يَنْظُرُ بِنُورِ اللَّهِ

'Beware of the intuition of the believer. Verily, he sees with the light of Allah.' [Jami` at-Tirmidhi; Sahih according to Al-Haythami]

Inspiration is another source of knowledge. Inspiration is connected with heart. And heart of a person is in the control of Allah. The Prophet (ﷺ) said,

إِذَا أَرَادَ اللَّهُ بِعَبْدٍ خَيْرًا اسْتَعْمَلَهُ

'If Allah wills goodness for a servant, He puts him into action.'

It was said, 'How is he put into action, O Messenger of Allah?' The Prophet (ﷺ) said,

يُوَفِّقُهُ لِعَمَلٍ صَالِحٍ قَبْلَ الْمَوْتِ

'He is guided to righteous deeds before death.' [Jami` at-Tirmidhi; Sahih]

Illumination or vision is another special way of knowing, Imam al-Gazali has written on this as ilm-ul-mukashifiah as considers it as the best knowledge. It could be also named as presential knowledge. The examples from the Quran could be taken from the story of Moses and Al-Khidr. The Quran tells us, 'And they found a servant from among Our servants [i.e., al-Khiḍr] to whom We had given mercy from Us and had taught him from Us a [certain] knowledge. Moses said to him, 'May I follow you on [the condition] that you teach me from what you have been taught of sound judgement?'

He said, 'Indeed, with me you will never be able to have patience. And how can you have patience for what you do not encompass in knowledge?' [QS. Al-Kahf (18):65-68]

Ibn Rajab said that in His Book, Allah sometimes mentions knowledge in a praiseworthy way; referring to beneficial knowledge, and at other times in a blameworthy way; referring to knowledge that is not beneficial. As for the first category, beneficial knowledge, its example lies in the sayings of Allah Subhanahu wa Ta'ala,

قُلْ هَلْ يَسْتَوِى الَّذِيْنَ يَعْلَمُوْنَ وَالَّذِيْنَ لَا يَعْلَمُوْنَ

' ... Say, "Are those who know equal to those who do not know? ...' [QS. Az-Zumar (39):9]

نَّ فِيْ ذٰلِكَ لَعِبْرَةً لِّاُولِى الْاَبْصَارِ

' ... Surely in this is a lesson for people of insight. ...' [QS. Ali 'Imran (3):13]

وَقُلْ رَّبِّ زِدْنِيْ عِلْمًا

' ... and say, "My Lord, increase me in knowledge.' [QS. Taha (20):114]

اِنَّمَا يَخْشَى اللّٰهَ مِنْ عِبَادِهِ الْعُلَمٰۤؤُاۗ

' ... Only those fear Allāh, from among His servants, who have knowledge ... ' [QS. Fatir (35):28]

It also lies in what Allah Subhanahu wa Ta'ala, recounts of the story of Adam, alaihissalam. He taught him the names of all things and then presented them to the angels, who said,

سُبْحٰنَكَ لَا عِلْمَ لَنَآ اِلَّا مَا عَلَّمْتَنَا ۗاِنَّكَ اَنْتَ الْعَلِيْمُ الْحَكِيْمُ

' ... Glory be to You! We have no knowledge except what You have taught us. You are truly the All-Knowing, All-Wise.' [QS. Al-Baqatah (2):32]

Further mention of it can be seen in what Allah Subhanahu wa Ta'ala, recounts of the story of Musa, alaihissalam, who asked Khidr,

هَلْ اَتَّبِعُكَ عَلٰٓى اَنْ تُعَلِّمَنِ مِمَّا عُلِّمْتَ رُشْدًا

' ... May I follow you, provided that you teach me some of the right guidance you have been taught?' [QS. Al-Kahf (18):66]

this being none Other than beneficial knowledge.

Moreover we have been informed about a people who were recipients of knowledge but their knowledge was of no avail. This knowledge, in and of itself, is beneficial, but the one to whom it was granted was not benefited by it. Allah Subhanahu wa Ta'ala says,

Moreover we have been informed about a people who were recipients of knowledge but their knowledge was of no avail. This knowledge, in and of itself, is beneficial, but the one to whom it was granted was not benefited by it. Allah Subhanahu wa Ta'ala, says,

مَثَلُ الَّذِيْنَ حُمِّلُوا التَّوْرٰىةَ ثُمَّ لَمْ يَحْمِلُوْهَا كَمَثَلِ الْحِمَارِ يَحْمِلُ اَسْفَارًاۗ

'The example of those who were entrusted with ˹observing˺ the Torah but failed to do so, is that of a donkey carrying books ... ' [QS. Al-Jumu'ah (62):5]

وَاتْلُ عَلَيْهِمْ نَبَاَ الَّذِيْٓ اٰتَيْنٰهُ اٰيٰتِنَا فَانْسَلَخَ مِنْهَا فَاَتْبَعَهُ الشَّيْطٰنُ فَكَانَ مِنَ الْغَاوِيْنَ

وَلَوْ شِئْنَا لَرَفَعْنٰهُ بِهَا وَلٰكِنَّهٗٓ اَخْلَدَ اِلَى الْاَرْضِ وَاتَّبَعَ هَوٰىهُۚ فَمَثَلُهٗ كَمَثَلِ الْكَلْبِۚ اِنْ تَحْمِلْ عَلَيْهِ يَلْهَثْ اَوْ تَتْرُكْهُ يَلْهَثْۗ ذٰلِكَ مَثَلُ الْقَوْمِ الَّذِيْنَ كَذَّبُوْا بِاٰيٰتِنَاۚ فَاقْصُصِ الْقَصَصَ لَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَفَكَّرُوْنَ

'And relate to them ˹O Prophet˺ the story of the one to whom We gave Our signs, but he abandoned them, so Satan took hold of him, and he became a deviant. And if We had willed, We could have elevated him thereby,1 but he adhered [instead] to the earth2 and followed his own desire. So his example is like that of the dog: if you chase him, he pants, or if you leave him, he [still] pants. That is the example of the people who denied Our signs.3 So relate the stories that perhaps they will give thought. ' [QS. Al-A'raf (7):175-176]

فَخَلَفَ مِنْۢ بَعْدِهِمْ خَلْفٌ وَّرِثُوا الْكِتٰبَ يَأْخُذُوْنَ عَرَضَ هٰذَا الْاَدْنٰى وَيَقُوْلُوْنَ سَيُغْفَرُ لَنَاۚ وَاِنْ يَّأْتِهِمْ عَرَضٌ مِّثْلُهٗ يَأْخُذُوْهُۗ

'And there followed them successors who inherited the Scripture [while] taking the commodities1 of this lower life and saying, "It will be forgiven for us." And if an offer like it2 comes to them, they will [again] take it. ...' [QS. Al-A'Raf (7):169]

Allah also says,

وَاَضَلَّهُ اللّٰهُ عَلٰى عِلْمٍ

'... and Allāh has sent him astray due to knowledge ... [QS. Al-Jathiyah (45):23] 

One of the explanations of this verse is that Allah sent him astray in spite of his knowledge. Islam teaches man as much what he should and can, as what he should not and cannot know. Knowing what one cannot and should not know is a fundamental aspect of knowledge ['know thy measure'].

In Islamic epistemology, the sources and means of knowledge are various including the revelation, whereas the dominant Western epistemology has been a combination of empiricism and rationalism. In Islamic perspective, the revelation is the first source and means of knowledge. The revelation touches many domains of knowledge and provides its foundations. Some of these foundations are very important because they make bedrock of many disciplines. For example, regarding the human origin, the revelation gives the understanding of the origin of the human being, his mission on the earth and purpose, and meaning of his being. There are matters which are pre-historic, but the Quran gives the unique divine version of those matters, for example, the disappearance of the old civilizations and human communities. Against materialism, the Quran talks about unseen world and beings. From these a few instances, it is clear that the foundations of knowledge in Islam are different because of its special conception of the reality.

On the other hand, these all matters are not yet possible for Modern science to verify or falsify. Some of these matters are outside the domain of the empirical and rational methods. Regarding matters for which revelation has been silent and are under the domain of being understood by any human being with suitable intellectual capacity, Islam gives all the freedom to human beings to venture into knowledge and spend efforts for creativity and innovation for beneficence. This objective of beneficence is called 'al-ilm al-nafiah' (beneficial knowledge). It is highly valued in Islam. Muslims are encouraged to supplicate by praying,

رَّبِّ زِدْنِي عِلْمًا

'O my Rabb, increase me in knowledge!' [QS. Taha (20):114]

And also,

اللَّهُمَّ انْفَعْنِي بِمَا عَلَّمْتَنِي وَعَلِّمْنِي مَا يَنْفَعُنِي وَزِدْنِي عِلْمًا

'O Allah, benefit me with what you have taught me, teach me what will benefit me, and increase my knowledge.' [Sunan al-Tirmidhī; Hasan]

Hence, any progress, creativity, and innovation in knowledge should be beneficial and not harmful. And a believer to continuously make effort in increasing his knowledge and understanding. From Islamic perspective, beneficial and useful creativity and innovation in all kinds of knowledge is rewarding and merit, making both in this world and hereafter, and as long as people benefit from such knowledge, the reward will go to the person who sow such a knowledge. The Prophet (ﷺ) said,

إِذَا مَاتَ الْإِنْسَانُ انْقَطَعَ عَنْهُ عَمَلُهُ إِلَّا مِنْ ثَلَاثَةٍ إِلَّا مِنْ صَدَقَةٍ جَارِيَةٍ أَوْ عِلْمٍ يُنْتَفَعُ بِهِ أَوْ وَلَدٍ صَالِحٍ يَدْعُو لَهُ

'When the human being dies, his deeds end except for three: ongoing charity, beneficial knowledge, or a righteous child who prays for him.' [Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim]"

The Moon was about to end the discussion, she concluded with, "Islamic epistemology is not an extremist one but synthetic and complementary one. Islam gives very high importance to senses and reason in knowing and at the same time puts revelation at a higher importance. All of these means are God given but they have their own purposes and objectives. The faculty of reason which human beings are gifted with is given to all human beings and human reason is able to find wisdom, create, and innovate.

Sometimes, when you read the Quran, you couldn't find something you were looking for or something that didn't make sense, then you conclude that, 'Some verses of the Qur'an must be obselete because they are no longer appropriate!' But wait a minute, may be you've forgotten something is called Paradigm. Paradigm is a way of thinking and a way of looking at a problem and/or a reality based on a reliable intellectual method. It is important to look at things through a paradigm called the Quranic Paradigm, i.e. a perspective or way of thinking about a problem based on the Qur'an. So, if you are sailing the ocean of knowledge with the Qur'an, sometimes, you will have to change your paradigm. Change your Paradigm, change your life, and therein lies the beauty of knowledge. And Allah knows best."

Suddenly, a thick mist began to block her light, and before she was covered, the Moon intoned,

أسمو وأجتاز السماء جلالا

[Asmu wa ‘ajtazus-sama’a jalala]

I rise and towards the sky in nobility

فأزيد أسراب الغيوم جمالا

[Fa’azidu ‘asrabal ghuyumi jamala]

So the flocks of clouds are more beautiful

وألون الدنيا بأجمل بسمة

[Wa ‘ulawwinu duniya bi’ajmali basmatin]

And colour the world with the most beautiful smile

وأكون للخير العميم مثالا *)

[Wa ‘akunu lilkhayril ’amimi mithala]

And I'll be an example for all the good

Citations & References:
- Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali, The Excellence of Knowledge, Translated from the original Arabic by Abu Rumaysah, Daar Us-Sunnah
- Mohammad Manzoor Malik, Islamic Approach to Critical Thinking, ResearchGate
*) "Asmu" performed by Muhammad al-Muqit

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