[Session 3]"A young businessman had just started his own firm. He had leased a beautiful office and had it furnished with antiques. Sitting behind his desk, he saw a man come into the outer office. Wishing to appear busy, the businessman picked up the phone and started to pretend he had a big deal working.Finally, he hung up and asked the visitor, 'May I help you?''Sure,' the man said. 'I’ve come to hook up your phone!'”"Let's continue!" said Wulandari. "Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so, Richard Paul and Linda Elder tell us. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated.There are many different types of thinking, says Steven Schuster. No one type of thinking is better than the others. They are all useful in certain situations. We shouldn’t only use one type of thinking to the exclusion of all others.Linear thinking is the way we were typically taught to think throughout our lives. It involves looking for a link between a cause and an effect. Linear thinking tells us that there is a cause and an effect, a problem and a solution, and a beginning and an ending. Linear thinking can be quite helpful in solving specific kinds of problems. For example, your cell phone shuts off (effect) because the battery was dead (cause). If you plug in your phone and charge the battery, your phone will work again.Linear thinking also comes with its drawbacks. It doesn't look at things as complex systems and chooses only to focus on one small piece of a much larger puzzle. When we focus on just one small part without taking into account how it is connected to a larger system, it is possible that our solutions may create unintended consequences that are not always beneficial.Event-oriented thinking does view the world as being more complex than linear thinking typically does, but it thinks of life as being made up of a series of events and not as a system. In this thinking model, an event is something that happened or is going to happen. Every event is believed to have a cause, and if we change the cause, the event will also be changed.Event-oriented thinking is the foundation for our logic. If we do A, then B will happen. This type of thinking is quick, easy to apply, and easily understood. Our brains like event-oriented thinking. Our brains feel good about handling problems that are simple and familiar to us. From the earliest human history, we planted crops in the spring so we could harvest them in the fall and still have enough to eat in the winter and throughout the year, we lived near water so we could have easy access to drinking water, fish for food, and a path for transportation. We made sharp arrowheads to help us to hunt better, and we banded together in groups to help us to stay safe and make sure that everyone’s needs were being met.Event-oriented thinking is ineffective in dealing with complex problems or systems. As our society has changed over time, event-oriented thinking has not evolved along with it. The problems we are faced with today often require a deeper understanding than event-oriented thinking allows.Lateral thinking, invented by Edward De Bono in 1967, involves more creative thinking that isn’t immediately obvious to those who rely heavily upon traditional step-by-step, logical thinking to reach conclusions. It strives to generate new and innovative ideas in a way that we can easily repeat over time. Lateral thinking is beneficial when you are trying to get beyond thinking of problems as having one set solution and want to expand your thinking beyond the patterns you have typically thought in. It is particularly helpful in brainstorming sessions and when the desired outcome is invention or innovation.The nature of lateral thinking is that no idea is discouraged, so all ideas are initially given the same weight, even if they are inappropriate. This may cost you precious time or get the problem-solving process off track. So, the disadvantage with lateral thinking is that a clear objective and ending point may not be identified. This type of thinking lacks some of the structure and goals that other types of thinking capitalize on.Critical thinking involves analyzing facts in an objective manner so that a judgment can be reached. It also often entails thinking about your thinking and reflecting on the way you are reaching decisions in order to overcome any biases and improve the quality and efficiency of your cognition.Critical thinking is effective when you are trying to find logical connections between ideas. Critical thinkers don’t accept things at face value; they dig deeper to be sure that there is rational thought and solid reasoning behind any information they are presented with before they accept it as true. It is highly beneficial when a systematic approach to solving a problem is needed.This type of thinking is very helpful in many ways. It may just need to be monitored to make sure that it isn’t taken to an extreme. Healthy skepticism and a questioning of points of view is an important life skill, as long as the skepticism and questioning of authority is with good reason and backed up by facts.Critical thinking is a concept that is intimidating to a lot of people, says Harvey Segler. As soon as they hear the word 'critical', their mind goes to somewhere intense and above their level. When you combine that with 'thinking', you cause a lot of people to shy away from the concept altogether.There are a lot of ideas and premonitions that surround the concept of critical thinking, but while the prejudices range from a bunch of science geeks surrounding a table in white lab coats to politicians debating the laws of the country, the phrase itself has a simple meaning.According to Segler, 'Critical thinking' is defined as: The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement.' This is merely a lot of large words to describe what is really a very simple concept. Simple in practice, that is, because you could be thinking about anything, whether that be a faster way to get to work in the morning, or something as difficult as curing cancer.Critical thinking gives you the tools to use scepticism and doubt constructively so that you can analyse what is before you, says Stella Cottrell. It helps you to make better and more informed decisions about whether something is likely to be true, effective or productive. Ultimately, in order to function in the world, we have to accept the probability that at least some things are as they seem. This requires trust. If we can analyse clearly the basis of what we take as true, we are more able to discern when it is reasonable to be trusting and where it is useful to be sceptical.The focus of critical thinking is often referred to as the 'argument'. Critical thinking is associated with reasoning or with our capacity for rational thought. The word 'rational' means 'using reasons' to solve problems.Critical thinking, in Paul and Elder view, is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it. In short, Critical thinking is self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcoming our native egocentrism [excessive interest in oneself and concern for one's own welfare or advantage at the expense of or in disregard of others] and sociocentrism [a tendency to assume the superiority or rightness of one's own social group].One of the skills researchers and educators agree critical thinkers should possess and practice is the ability to look at a problem from different perspectives, says Jonathan Haber. The origins of critical thinking, however, all starts with philosophy, the key works of Plato’s student, Aristotle.Three figures dominate the origin story of Greek philosophy. The first, Socrates, questioned fixed beliefs and strove to live an 'examined life,' activities that earned him the title of father of Western philosophy as well as a death sentence from his annoyed fellow Athenians. Socrates left behind no written work, but others captured his insights, notably his student Plato, whose Dialogs presents his master’s thinking ntertwined with his own ideas. Plato also founded what is considered to be the first school of philosophy in the Western world—the Academy—where philosophers such as the brilliant Aristotle studied.One of the roles Aristotle played was that of a great systematizer who brought order to a wide range of subjects studied by him and other thinkers. In fact, many of today’s academic fields, such as biology and political science, became distinct disciplines only when Aristotle analyzed and organized them.Critical thinking starts with asking the right questions.. Asking essential analytical questions is vital to excellence in thought. It is not possible to be a good thinker and a poor questioner. Questions define tasks, express problems, and delineate issues. They drive thinking forward. Answers, on the other hand, offen signal a full stop in thought. Only when an answer generates further questions does thought continue as inquiry. A mind with no questions is a mind that is not intellectually alive. No questions (asked) equals no understanding (achieved). Superficial questions equal superficial understanding, unclear questions equal unclear understanding. If your mind is not actively generating questions, you are not engaged in substantive learning. Thinking within disciplines is driven, not by answers, but by essential questions.If you are anything close to being an average human being on the planet, the question of 'Why do the rich get richer?' has undoubtedly crossed your mind on more than one occasion. Can we find some answers to satisfy our curiosity?Those who are financially well-off often use the wealth and privilege that they have to get insider information, special or additional knowledge which in turn helps them to generate more of that money, privilege, and closed-group information for themselves. Competitive exclusion is a system trap. What happens when someone wins a competition? He or she gets a reward. This reward — monetary, equipment, granted access — gives our winner the ability to compete even better or easier next time. This forms a reinforcing feedback loop, which increases the likelihood that the winners will keep winning and the losers will keep losing.How does Monopoly—the board game— evolve? Each player begins the game on a level playing field, but as soon as a player begins to accumulate properties on the game board, all of that changes. When a player has control of a property, they can start to build hotels and charge the other players rent when they land on their properties. That player can then take the money they receive from the other players and use it to buy more properties and put more hotels on the game board. This makes it next to impossible for the other players to catch up, and greatly increases the likelihood that the hotel-owning player will win the game.We also see this at play in nature. The competitive exclusion principle tells us that it is impossible to have two different species living in exactly the same ecological niche, competing with one another for exactly the same food and resources. When two species are different, one of the species will either be able to reproduce faster or be more effective in using resources than the other species. This will serve to give that species an advantage over the other one as it will begin to increase its population and continue to be dominant over the other species. The dominant species does not need to fight the other species. By using up all of the available resources, it means there are none left for the weaker competitor. This will force that species to either move away, adapt by using different resources, or become extinct.As you formulate questions, consider the following guidelines and sample questions: questioning goals and purposes; questioning questions; questioning information, data, and experience; questioning inferences and conclusions; questioning concepts and ideas; questioning assumptions; questioning implications and consequences; questioning viewpoints and perspectives.Jennifer Lawrence and Lawrence Chester suggest the process of critical thinking contained four steps. First, gathering info before making decisions. Second, generate ideas using a fresh perspective. Third, evaluate options using a logic-driven process. And finally, agree at each stage of the process.So, how does critical thinking play a role in ethics? Critical thinking provides us with the tools to identify and resolve issues in our lives, says Judith A. Boss. Critical thinking is not simply a matter of asserting our opinions on issues. Opinions are based on personal feelings or beliefs, rather than on reason and evidence. We are all certainly entitled to our own opinions. Opinions, however, are not necessarily reasonable. While some may happen to turn out to be correct, opinions, no matter how deeply and sincerely held, may also be mistaken. As a critical thinker, you need to be willing to provide logical support for your beliefs.Uninformed opinions can lead you to make poor decisions in your life and act in ways that you may later come to regret. Sometimes uninformed opinions can negatively impact society. For example, even though antibiotics kill bacteria and have no effect on cold viruses, many people try to persuade their doctors into prescribing them for cold symptoms. Despite doctors telling patients that antibiotics have no effect on viral infections, studies show that about half of doctors give in to patient pressure for antibiotics for viral infections. Such overuse of antibiotics makes bacteria more drug resistant and has led to a decline in the effectiveness of treatment in diseases where they are really needed. This phenomenon has been linked to the emergence of new, more virulent strains of drug-resistant tuberculosis. In addition, the incidence of some sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis, which was once treatable by penicillin, is once again on the rise.The ability to think critically and to make effective life decisions is shaped by many factors, including our stage of cognitive development, the possession of good analytical communication, and research skills and such characteristics as open-mindedness, flexibility, and creativity.So, how does critical thinking play a role in ethics? Critical thinking provides us with the tools to identify and resolve issues in our lives, says Judith A. Boss. Critical thinking is not simply a matter of asserting our opinions on issues. Opinions are based on personal feelings or beliefs, rather than on reason and evidence. We are all certainly entitled to our own opinions. Opinions, however, are not necessarily reasonable. While some may happen to turn out to be correct, opinions, no matter how deeply and sincerely held, may also be mistaken. As a critical thinker, you need to be willing to provide logical support for your beliefs.Uninformed opinions can lead you to make poor decisions in your life and act in ways that you may later come to regret. Sometimes uninformed opinions can negatively impact society. For example, even though antibiotics kill bacteria and have no effect on cold viruses, many people try to persuade their doctors into prescribing them for cold symptoms. Despite doctors telling patients that antibiotics have no effect on viral infections, studies show that about half of doctors give in to patient pressure for antibiotics for viral infections. Such overuse of antibiotics makes bacteria more drug resistant and has led to a decline in the effectiveness of treatment in diseases where they are really needed. This phenomenon has been linked to the emergence of new, more virulent strains of drug-resistant tuberculosis. In addition, the incidence of some sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis, which was once treatable by penicillin, is once again on the rise.The ability to think critically and to make effective life decisions is shaped by many factors, including our stage of cognitive development, the possession of good analytical communication, and research skills and such characteristics as open-mindedness, flexibility, and creativity.Next session, we will discuss some ethical issues, bi 'idhnillah," said Wulandari as she was chanting,Beri sedikit waktu[Give it a little time]Biar cinta datang karena telah terbiasa *)[Let love comes because it's used to it]
[Session 1]
