"One morning, a father told his teenage daughter, 'Did I hear the clock strike four as you came in last night?''Oh, it started to strike nine Dad,' his daughter replied, 'but I stopped it so that it wouldn’t wake you up.'""In pre-modern societies, the most common units of time – the day, the month, and the year —were defined by the three great natural timekeepers—the earth, the moon, and the sun," Cananga continued."The rotation of the earth on its axis established the first natural division—light and dark—and the twenty-four-hour period was the shortest unit of the natural clock. Most societies further divided the daylight hours by the apparent movement of the sun across the sky. Because the axis of the earth was tilted at 23.5 degrees, the amount of light in a twenty-four-hour period varied with the seasons (except at the equator). Only at the equinoxes (equal nights)—the Vernal (21 March) and the Autumnal (21 September)—were day and night exactly twelve hours each.The second natural timekeeper, the moon, revolved around the earth and cycled through its phases in approximately 29.5 days. The interesting thing about the moon was the way its shape changed. When directly between the earth and the sun, it was invisible; as it orbited, however, it waxed, became full, and then waned to a sliver, disappearing entirely. The cycle was repeated again and again. Because these changes—from sliver, to half, to full, and back again – were so readily apparent and since the approximately thirty-day period mimicked other natural intervals—the female menstrual period and the cyclic behavior of certain marine creatures—the cycle assumed great importance in the ancient world and was the basis of many early calendars.The third natural timekeeper was the sun. Although it took the earth approximately 365.25 days to travel around the sun, astronomers deter- mined the precise length of the solar year in two slightly different ways. The tropical solar year, employed by the astronomers of the Islamic tradition, was the time it took the sun, in its apparent movement, to return to the same reference point on the ecliptic—365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds. That reference point was typically the Vernal Equinox, where the celestial equator intersected the ecliptic (the plane of the earth’s orbit around the sun). In astrological terminology it was the first point of Aries and was usually dated 21 March (although it could sometimes fall on the 19th or the 20th). The sidereal solar year, by contrast, employed in the Indic astronomical tradition, measured the apparent motion of the sun with reference to a fixed background star. The two definitions differed slightly on the length of the solar year—the sidereal being about twenty minutes longer than the tropical.The word 'calendar' comes from the Latin 'calendarium,' an interest register or account book. At its most basic, the calendar is a way of keeping track of the first natural time division—the day. It is an abstract method of naming the days by allocating each to a week, a month, and a year. A guide to day-to-day activities, the calendar enables a society to fix its important rituals and festivals. It offers a way of recording and arranging the events of the past as well as calculating commitments for the future. To produce such an abstract temporal system was the impetus behind most early attempts to observe and record the positions of the heavenly bodies.The tracking of time is, in a deep way, a signature preoccupation not just of modern society, but of human civilization in general. The process of building and refining timekeeping devices has been one of the great drivers of progress in science and technology for millennia: from Neolithic solstice markers through mechanical watches to ultra-precise laser frequency standards, we are and always have been a species that builds clocks.At the most basic level, says Chat Orzel, a clock is a thing that ticks. The 'tick' here can be the audible physical tick we associate with a mechanical clock like the one in Union’s Memorial Chapel, caused by collisions between gear teeth as a heavy pendulum swings back and forth. It can also be a more subtle physical effect, like the alternating voltage that provides the time signal for the electronic wall clocks in our classrooms. It can be exceedingly fast, like the nine-billion-times-a-second oscillations of the microwaves used in the atomic clocks that provide the time signals transmitted to smartphones via the internet, or ponderously slow like the changing position of the rising sun on the horizon. In every one of these clocks, though, there is a tick: a regular, repeated action that can be counted to mark the passage of time.For people in modern societies, solstice markers and calendars are not the first objects we picture when the subject of timekeeping comes up. When we think of timekeeping technology, for the most part, we envision something that is both faster and showier. What immediately comes to mind for most people when the subject turns to timekeeping technology is a clock: a device for measuring time on much shorter intervals than a day. We use clocks for numerous purposes: to limit work hours or sporting competitions, to coordinate meetings with friends and colleagues, or to track the unfolding of rapidly changing events, and so on. Clockmakers employ a wide variety of displays to achieve this end, from lighted displays to ringing bells to musical alarms.A mechanical clock whose audible 'tick-tock' provides us with the term for the repeating process at the core of any timekeeping method. These days, it’s very common for scientists and science writers to speak of the operation of the universe in terms of 'clockwork.' The solar system, the galaxy, and even the universe as a whole is cast as a mechanical clock: an intricate system with innumerable tiny parts moving in complex ways that ticks along smoothly and reliably from the known past into the predictable future. It operates according to simple rules and principles, and its various patterns and cycles require no outside intervention to keep them repeating over and over.The Ummah begin their day at sundown, because the calendar is lunar and the months begin with the sighting of the crescent shortly after sunset. The sunset (Maghrib time) marks the beginning of the new twenty-four-hour period (Yawm) or 'day'. For example, at Maghrib of Thursday starts the night of Friday (Laylat al-Jumu'ah) and at Fajr time of the night of Friday starts the daytime of Friday (Nahar al-Jumu'ah) and it lasts until the next Maghrib. The same goes for all the others days.There are five canonical prayers (salat); the night prayers are determined in terms of horizon and twilight phenomena and the times of the daylight prayers are defined in terms of shadow lengths.The five daily prayers are found in several verses of the Quran. Isha' and Fajr prayers are mentioned directly. Allah says,يٰٓاَيُّهَا الَّذِيْنَ اٰمَنُوْا لِيَسْتَأْذِنْكُمُ الَّذِيْنَ مَلَكَتْ اَيْمَانُكُمْ وَالَّذِيْنَ لَمْ يَبْلُغُوا الْحُلُمَ مِنْكُمْ ثَلٰثَ مَرّٰتٍۗ مِنْ قَبْلِ صَلٰوةِ الْفَجْرِ وَحِيْنَ تَضَعُوْنَ ثِيَابَكُمْ مِّنَ الظَّهِيْرَةِ وَمِنْۢ بَعْدِ صَلٰوةِ الْعِشَاۤءِۗ ثَلٰثُ عَوْرٰتٍ لَّكُمْۗ لَيْسَ عَلَيْكُمْ وَلَا عَلَيْهِمْ جُنَاحٌۢ بَعْدَهُنَّۗ طَوَّافُوْنَ عَلَيْكُمْ بَعْضُكُمْ عَلٰى بَعْضٍۗ كَذٰلِكَ يُبَيِّنُ اللّٰهُ لَكُمُ الْاٰيٰتِۗ وَاللّٰهُ عَلِيْمٌ حَكِيْمٌ'O you who have believed, let those whom your right hands possess and those who have not [yet] reached puberty among you ask permission of you [before entering] at three times: before the dawn prayer and when you put aside your clothing [for rest] at noon and after the night prayer. [These are] three times of privacy [literally, 'exposure' or 'being uncovered'] for you. There is no blame upon you nor upon them beyond these [periods], for they continually circulate among you—some of you, among others. Thus does Allāh make clear to you the verses [i.e., His ordinances]; and Allāh is Knowing and Wise.' [QS. An-Nur (24):58]The Qur'an does not specify the exact time of prayers are performed, but it does provide instructions. One verse says,اَقِمِ الصَّلٰوةَ لِدُلُوْكِ الشَّمْسِ اِلٰى غَسَقِ الَّيْلِ وَقُرْاٰنَ الْفَجْرِۗ اِنَّ قُرْاٰنَ الْفَجْرِ كَانَ مَشْهُوْدًا'Establish prayer at the decline of the sun [from its meridian] until the darkness of the night [i.e., the period which includes the Zuhr, Aṣr, Maghrib, and Isha’ prayers] and [also] the Qur’ān [i.e., recitation] of dawn [i.e., the Fajr prayer, in which the recitation of the Qur’an is prolonged]. Indeed, the recitation of dawn is ever witnessed (by the angels).' [QS. Al-Isra (17):78]In short, Salat al-Isha' (evening prayer), after twilight; Salat al-fajr (dawn prayer), at daybreak; Salat al-Zuhr (noon prayer), after noon, the sun just beginning to decline; Salat al-asr (afternoon prayer), the sun still high, white, and pure; Salat al-Maghrib (sunset prayer), when the sun had disappeared over the horizon.The most important prayer of the week—the noon prayer on Friday—was scheduled for a particular moment rather than for a range of hours, and interest in more exact methods of time reckoning soon developed. By the early thirteenth century, a muwaqqit (timekeeper) had begun to appear on the staff of many mosques. At about the same time the name of another time specialist (the miqati), a munajjim who specialized in spherical astronomy and astronomical timekeeping but who was not a mosque official, became increasingly common in the astronomical/astrological literature.By the early fifteenth century, the water clock had spread across the Islamic world and had become the instru- ment of choice for the muwaqqit and the muezzin. This interest in more accurate timekeeping was reflected in the new name of the discipline—ilm-il muwaqqit (science of fixed times).In the first decade after the Prophet’s (ﷺ) death, the early Muslim community established a new era. In his 'Chronology', Al-Biruni wrote, '... From what has been said above regarding months, intercalation, and leap year it is clear that there are that of the latter there are two varieties, the first, simple, formed of12 months such as the Moslems and Turks and orientals use, each having as a mean of 354 days, but occasionally 353 and 355, this excess and deficiency being outside the control of man. The second, that where intercalation is practiced, and 13 months result as is the case with the Hindus and the Jews as well as the Greeks in ancient times and the pre-Islamic Arabs. On the other hand, the solar year has 365 days and a fraction which is nearly a quarter; it is employed by the Greeks, Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, and Sogdians (or Sogdiana was an ancient Iranian civilization between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya), but these differ as to their method of dealing with the fraction.A ’date’ is a point of time well-established at which something has taken place knowledge of which has reached and been diffused among the people, such as the formation of a new religion or sect, or some occurrence in a state which, like a great battle or a devastating hurricane, has arrested attention to such an extent that it is taken as an artificial point of departure from which to reckon years, months or days, so that whenever it is desired, the amount of time which has since elapsed can be known, or the relative dates of events fixed whether before or after.The Mussulman era [at-taqwim al-hijri, denoted as AH (Anno Hegirae)] dates from the year when the Prophet (ﷺ) removed, hijra, from Mecca to Medina [16 July 622 AD]: its years are all lunar. That of the people of the Book is the Greek one known as the era of Alexander, although it is from the beginning of the year when Seleucus was appointed King of Antioch [1 Sept. 311 BCE], Christians employ it Syrian or Greek years, while the Jews use their lunar years with the necessary intercalations, and the Harranians, who call themselves Sabians have customs similar to the Jews. Other eras are known to the people of the Book such as the creation of Adam (عليه السلام) and the deluge of Noah (عليه السلام), the drowning of Pharaoh (عليه لعنة الله) the erection by Solomon (عليه السلام) of the temple in Jerusalem, and the destruction of that temple by Nebuchadrezzar (Bukhtnasar), but there are controversies about these, consequently it has been agreed that the era of Alexander is most satisfactory because of the fewer difficulties at tending it, and the smaller number of years involved.During the ignorance the Arabs reckoned from celebrated battles among themselves, and before the Hijra, the year of the Elephant when the Abyssinians coming from Yamen to destroy the Kaba were routed and in which the Prophet (ﷺ) was born.The Persians have been accustomed to date from the beginning of the reign of their reigning king, and on his death to use that of his successor. At the time their empire was destroyed, they were dating from Yazdeger ibn Shahryar bin Khusrow Parviz the last of the Khusrows, the years being without intercalation the majority of the Magians date from his murder 20 years after his accession.The Egyptians on the other hand date from Nabonassar, a practice which Ptolemy followed in the Almagest' in determining the mean motions of the planets, while regarding the fixed stars he dated from Antoninus the then King of Greece. At present, however, the modern Egyptians who intercalate along with Rome date from Augustus the first of the Emperors. In astronomical books, the era of Diocletian is always found. He was the last of the pagan Emperors of Rome; after him they became Christians.Among the Hindus, many eras are in use, some old, some new. The best-known and most current of them is Shakalala which means the era of Shaka, that man who became victorious and all-powerful at that time, and tyrannized over the people; when they killed him, they made this era from the year of their delivery from him.Necessarily every nation has one or more eras; they are only of two kinds, whether knowledge of them has reached us or not. However, this is a long story and has been dealt with more conveniently in another place.'For Muslims, the position of the sun plays a crucial role in determining prayer times. Finding the most accurate bearing of the Kaaba, in Makkah, has been an integral part of Islamic science since its inception. As such, astronomy has always played an important role. Muslim polymaths, like Al-Biruni, Al Battuni, Al Khawarizmi, Thabit Ibn Qurra, and Ali Al Qushji, to Ulugh Bey, have always helped innovate and expand the discipline. But it's not only Muslim men who have contributed. In the 10th century, a Muslim woman, Maryam Al Ijlya - also known as Mariam Al Astrulabi - changed the face of astronomy forever by pioneering the astrolabe. Her contribution to astronomy was recognized in 1990 when Henry H. Holy discovered the main-best asteroid at Palomar Observatory and named it the 7069 Al Ijliyye. Astrolabes are used for astronomical observations, timekeeping, and navigation. Mariam's innovation also laid the foundation for managing transport and communication routes. She also contributed to tracking the position of the sun, moon, stars, and planets, helping find the Qiblah and ascertaining prayer times and the date of Ramadan. Mariam is considered one of the 200 most famous astronomers in history.Astronomy deals with the study of the heavens in an effort to understand the underlying principles governing the behavior of the planets, stars, and galaxies and the Universe in general. To study about the orbiting of the stars and the moving of the celestial bodies upon the incidents by the decree and fate of Allah is permissible, like the doctor deducing, well-being and illness by checking one’s pulse. But if one takes knowledge from the stars, for example, Fortune-telling, and he or she does not have the belief of the decree and fate of Allah in (the influence of anything) and claims to know the unseen itself, he has committed an act of disbelief. So, it is forbidden from an Islamic perspective. Learn from the stars which you can take guidance from, then restrain yourself. Indeed, the signs of Allah are everywhere, not only in the sky but also on land and sea, in plants and animals, and even in yourself.In the Islamic months, every month, out of the twelve, is originally equal to the other, and there is no inherent sanctity that may be attributed to one of them compared to other months. When Allah chooses a particular time for His special blessings, then it acquires sanctity out of His grace.Abu Huraira (رضي الله عنه) reported that the Prophet (ﷺ) was asked as to which prayer was most excellent after the prescribed prayer, and which fast was most excellent after the month of Ramadan. He (ﷺ) said,أَفْضَلُ الصَّلاَةِ بَعْدَ الصَّلاَةِ الْمَكْتُوبَةِ الصَّلاَةُ فِي جَوْفِ اللَّيْلِ وَأَفْضَلُ الصِّيَامِ بَعْدَ شَهْرِ رَمَضَانَ صِيَامُ شَهْرِ اللَّهِ الْمُحَرَّمِ'Prayer offered in the middle of the night and the most excellent fast after (fasting) in the month of Ramadan is the fast in Allah's month al-Muharram.' [Sahih Muslim]The hadith signifies that the best month of fasting is the month of Muharram, the fasts of the month of Muharram are the most rewardable ones among the fasts one observes. Although the fasts of the month of Muharram are not obligatory, yet, the one who fasts on these days out of his own will and choice is entitled to a great reward from Allah. The hadith does not mean that the award promised for the last of Muharram can be achieved only by fasting for the whole month. On the contrary, each fast during this month has merit. Therefore, one should avail of this opportunity as much as he can.According to Ibn Rajab (رحمه الله), since this month is specifically attributed to Allah and fasting is one of the deeds which is attributed to Allah, it was considered appropriate to specify an action for this month which is attributed to Him with an action which is attributed to Him and done solely for Him, viz. fasting. It is said that the reason for attributing this month to Allah is to show that its sanctity belongs to Allah and no one has the right to change this as was the habit of the people of jahiliyyah who used to change its sanctity and transfer it to Safar. He thus makes reference to the fact that it is the month of Allah which He sanctified, and no one from His creation has the right to change this.Although the month of Muharram is a sanctified month as a whole, yet, the 10th day of Muharram is the most sacred among all its days. The day is named Ashura'. It is more advisable that the fast of Ashura should either be prefixed or suffixed by another fast. It means that one should fast two days the 9th and 10th of Muharram or the 10th and 11th of it.A righteous person became well-known for his abundant fasting, says Ibn Rajab to explain one of the reasons why Muslims are prescribed to perform fasting. 'The fragrance of a fasting person is better in the sight of Allah than the fragrance of musk,' says the Prophet (ﷺ). No matter how much a fasting person tries to conceal this smell, it spreads to the hearts, and the souls inhale this fragrance. It may well appear after death and on the day of Resurrection.A righteous person used to fast a lot. The entire world is a month of fasting for the pious people. The day of their ‘id shall be on the day when they meet their Rabb. A greater portion of the day of fasting has passed and the ‘id of meeting Allah has drawn near. Since fasting is supposed to be a secret between the servant and his Rabb, the sincere ones strove to conceal it in every way possible so that no one comes to know of it. He would stand at the jami‘ masjid on a Friday, hold a jug of water in his hand, place its edge to his mouth, and do as if he was sipping from it. The people would be watching him but nothing would go down his throat. He started doing this in order to remove the popularity of his fasting. One of the scholars of the past kept fasting for forty years and no one knew about it. He had a shop. He used to take two loaves of bread everyday from his house and depart towards his shop. On the way, he would give both the loaves in charity. His family members assumed that he was eating the bread in the market-place while the people in the market-place assumed that he ate at home before coming to the shop. No matter how much the truthful people try to conceal their conditions, the fragrance of truth betrays them. When a person conceals a secret, Allah W most certainly brings it into the open.Finally, there is a door in Paradise whose name is ar-Rayyan. None but those who used to fast shall enter through it. Once they have entered, it will be locked and no one else will be able to go through. Fasting is a shield against the Hell-fire like a shield which one of you uses in battle.Muharram means 'sacred', the first month of the Islamic calendar with at most thirty days. Warfare in Muharram is forbidden and it has been so since before the advent of Islam. The word Muharram is short for "Muharram Safar" (lit. 'sacred Safar'), which distinguishes in the ancient Arab calendar between Safar I, which was sacred, and Safar II, which was not.Safar is the second month of the lunar Islamic calendar. The Arabic word safar means 'travel, migration', corresponding to the pre-Islamic Arabian time period when Muslims fled the oppression of Quraish in Mecca and travelled, mostly barefooted, to Madina. We'll continue our discussion about Safar in the next episode, bi 'idhnillah."
Citations & References:
- Stephen P. Blake, Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires, 2013, Cambridge University Press
- Chat Orzel, A Brief History of Time Keeping: The Science of Marking Time, from Stonehenge to Atomic Clocks, 2022, BenBella Books
- Abu'l Rayhan Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Al-Biruni, The Book of Instruction in the Elements of the Art of Astrology, written in Ghaznah, 1029 A.D., The Translation facing the Text by R.Ramsay Wright, M.A. Edin., LL.D. Tor. and Edin., 1934, published in 2007 by Antioch Gate.
