"According to Dietrich Bonhoeffer, stupidity is a lack of intelligence and a moral and social failing that manifests in specific symptoms or behaviours," said Limbuk carrying on. "His analysis in Letters and Papers from Prison highlights several key traits or 'symptoms' of stupidity, particularly in individuals under the influence of powerful systems, propaganda, or societal pressures, The first symptom is resistance to reason and facts. A refusal or inability to engage with evidence, logic, or critical thinking. The person dismisses or ignores facts that contradict their beliefs, often labelling them as irrelevant or untrustworthy: 'Facts that contradict one’s prejudgment simply need not be believed.'
For example, someone refuses to accept scientifically proven truths (e.g., climate change, public health measures) because they conflict with their preconceptions or ideological narratives.
The second symptom is blind conformity to Authority or Groupthink. Uncritical loyalty to a leader, ideology, or group, even in the face of obvious wrongdoing or harm. The person adopts the views, slogans, or behaviours of the group without independent thought, acting as an instrument of others’ agendas, 'Under the overwhelming impact of rising power, men are deprived of their inner independence.'
For example: Following harmful policies or movements simply because 'everyone else is doing it' or because a charismatic leader says it is right.
Third, moral and intellectual passivity. A failure to take responsibility for one’s thoughts or actions, relying instead on others to dictate beliefs and decisions. The person avoids questioning their position or the morality of their actions, often saying things like, 'I was just following orders.'
'Stupidity does not stem from a lack of intelligence but from a moral failing.'
For example, supporting harmful practices (e.g., discrimination) without personally reflecting on their ethical implications.
Fourth, emotional, not rational, reactions. Decisions and opinions are driven by emotional impulses (fear, anger, loyalty) rather than reasoned deliberation. The person reacts defensively or aggressively when challenged, often resorting to name-calling, ridicule, or other irrational responses.
'The stupid person is often stubborn, but this has nothing to do with independence.'
For example, dismissing criticisms of a political figure with emotional outbursts rather than considering the validity of the arguments.
Fifth, lack of self-awareness. An inability to recognize one’s ignorance or complicity in harmful actions. The person overestimates their knowledge or understanding while being completely unaware of how little they know.
'The stupid person cannot see that he is being exploited.'
For example, someone confidently spreads misinformation, unaware that they are being manipulated by propaganda.
Sixth, misplaced certainty and arrogance. A stubborn certainty in one’s beliefs, even when these beliefs are demonstrably false or harmful. The person refuses to entertain alternate perspectives, convinced of their righteousness or correctness.
'Stupidity is not merely a defect in knowledge but rather a profound disconnection from reality.'
For example, denying evidence presented by experts, claiming, 'I know better,' without offering valid reasoning.
Seventh, complicity in evil. A lack of moral reflection allows evil actions or policies to occur without resistance. The person becomes a passive enabler of harm by failing to question or oppose wrongdoing.
'The power of the one needs the stupidity of the other.'
For example, supporting oppressive systems or discriminatory policies without considering their broader impact.
Eighth, simplistic thinking and stereotyping. A preference for oversimplified explanations or slogans over nuanced understanding. The person clings to black-and-white views, avoiding the complexity of real-world issues.
'They can only repeat slogans and catchwords, which have taken possession of them.'
For example, reducing complex political or social problems to scapegoating a specific group or blaming an easy target.
Ninth, herd mentality and loss of individuality. A reliance on collective thought, abandoning personal autonomy and critical self-reflection. The person mirrors the opinions and actions of their group, avoiding responsibility for their role in group decisions.
'A stupid person is often the tool of others, allowing them to achieve their goals.'
For example, participating in mob-like behaviour (e.g., hate speech or violence) without pausing to consider whether it is right or justified.
Tenth, immunity to criticism. An inability to accept or respond constructively to criticism. The person disregards feedback or alternative perspectives, doubling down on their position.
'Reason falls on deaf ears; facts that contradict one’s prejudgment simply need not be believed.'
For example, refusing to engage in civil dialogue, and dismissing criticism as an attack rather than an opportunity for growth.
Bonhoeffer’s concept of stupidity as a moral failure resonates deeply in the context of modern challenges. Many people uncritically adopt ideologies or narratives propagated by media or political groups without questioning their truth. Social platforms amplify herd mentality, encouraging emotional reactions and discouraging independent thought. The blind acceptance of corporate narratives and the failure to reflect on ethical consumption align with Bonhoeffer’s critique. The inability to engage with opposing views or critically assess one’s side contributes to societal divisions.
For Bonhoeffer, stupidity is not an individual flaw but a collective moral crisis that arises when people abandon their responsibility to think critically and act ethically. Combating stupidity requires fostering moral courage, self-awareness, and independent thought in ourselves and others.
Carlo M. Cipolla’s The Basic Laws of Human Stupidity (2019, Doubleday) is a thought-provoking essay that humorously and incisively examines human stupidity as a consistent and disruptive force in society. Cipolla initially published this work as part of a larger collection, Allegro ma non troppo (1976). The essay later became widely known and is now often discussed independently.
Cipolla outlines five fundamental laws to define, explain, and analyse the pervasive nature of stupidity. Without ambiguity, the first basic law of Human Stupidity asserts that 'always and inevitably everyone underestimates the number of stupid individuals in circulation.'
At first, the statement sounds trivial, vague and horribly ungenerous. Closer scrutiny will, however, reveal its realistic veracity. No matter how high one’s estimates of human stupidity, one is repeatedly and recurrently startled by the fact that people whom one had once judged rational and intelligent turn out to be unashamedly stupid; day after day, with unceasing monotony, one is harassed in one’s activities by stupid individuals who appear suddenly and unexpectedly in the most inconvenient places and at the most improbable moments.
Stupidity is universal and distributed across all demographics—regardless of gender, race, education, or socioeconomic status. Cipolla humorously argues that we consistently underestimate how many people are, in fact, stupid. No group (even highly intelligent or elite groups) is immune to stupidity, which makes it an ever-present societal challenge.
Although convinced that a fraction of human beings are stupid and that they are so because of genetic traits, Cipolla is not a reactionary trying to reintroduce surreptitiously class or race discrimination. He firmly believes that stupidity is an indiscriminate privilege of all human groups and is uniformly distributed according to a constant proportion. This fact is scientifically expressed by the Second Basic Law, which states that the probability that a certain person is stupid is independent of any other characteristic of that person. Cipolla humorously observes that stupidity is a constant in every group, regardless of intelligence, education, or power. He quips, 'You will find stupid people in every nation, every social class, every organization, and every corner of the world. From Harvard professors to janitors, stupidity is the only truly democratic force.'
He highlights how you can’t predict who will act stupidly. The street-smart mechanic might be brilliant in fixing a car but might believe in obviously false conspiracy theories. A highly educated professor might accidentally staple their tie to a student’s essay.
The Third (and Golden) Basic Law assumes, although it does not state it explicitly, that human beings fall into four basic categories: the helpless, the intelligent, the bandit, and the stupid. The Third Basic Law explicitly clarifies, 'A stupid person is a person who causes losses to another person or a group of persons while himself deriving no gain and even possibly incurring losses.'
Cipolla divides humanity into four categories based on their actions and their effects on themselves and others. The Helpless are those who unintentionally harm themselves while benefiting others. For example, 'Those who always hold the door open for you but forget to step out of the way themselves.'
The Intelligent are those who act to benefit both themselves and others. For example, 'Rare and precious individuals who can find a way to win without others losing—like the friend who insists on splitting the bill when you forgot your wallet.'
The Bandits are those who benefit themselves at others' expense. For example, 'The one who steals your parking spot after waving at you like they’re helping.'
The Stupid are the stars of Cipolla’s essay. These people harm others while harming themselves, and Cipolla finds this so absurd that he can’t help but emphasize how dangerous they are. He writes with mock seriousness, 'The Stupid person is the most dangerous type of person, more dangerous than the Bandit.'
Most people do not act consistently. Under certain circumstances, a given person acts intelligently and under different circumstances the same person will act helplessly. The only important exception to the rule is represented by the stupid people, who normally show a strong proclivity toward perfect consistency in all fields of human endeavours.
Like all human creatures, stupid people vary enormously in their capacity to affect their fellow men. Some stupid people normally cause only limited losses while others egregiously succeed in causing ghastly and widespread damage not only to one or two individuals but to entire communities or societies.
The damaging potential of the stupid person depends on two major factors. First of all, it depends on the genetic factor. Some individuals inherit exceptional doses of the gene of stupidity and by inheritance, they belong from birth to the elite of their group. The second factor that determines the potential of a stupid person is related to the position of power and consequence that he occupies in society. Among bureaucrats, generals, politicians, and heads of state one has little difficulty in finding clear examples of basically stupid individuals whose damaging capacity was (or is) alarmingly enhanced by the position of power that they occupied (or occupy). Religious dignitaries should not be overlooked.
One is tempted to believe that a stupid man will harm only himself, but this is confusing stupidity with helplessness. On occasion one is tempted to associate oneself with a stupid individual to use him for one’s schemes. Such a manoeuvre can only have disastrous effects because it is based on a complete misunderstanding of the essential nature of stupidity; it gives the stupid person added scope for the exercise of his gifts. One may hope to outmaneuver the stupid and up to a point one may do so. But because of the erratic behavior of the stupid, one cannot foresee all the stupid’s actions and reactions, and before long one will be pulverized by the unpredictable moves of the stupid partner.
This is summarized in the Fourth Basic Law, which states that non-stupid people always underestimate the damaging power of stupid individuals. In particular, non-stupid people constantly forget that at all times and places and under any circumstances to deal and/or associate with stupid people infallibly turns out to be a costly mistake.
Through centuries and millennia, in public as in private life, countless individuals have failed to take account of the Fourth Basic Law, and the failure has caused mankind incalculable losses."
