The eight-hour workday has its roots in the labor movements of the 19th century, particularly during the height of the Industrial Revolution, when many workers were forced to work long hours—often 10 to 16 hours a day—in dangerous and exhausting conditions. Workers began to organize and protest, demanding shorter hours with the slogan: “Eight hours for work, eight hours for rest, and eight hours for what we will.”
The first country in the world to implement the eight-hour workday by national legislation was Uruguay in 1915. However, Australia (specifically the state of Victoria) was among the first places in the world to implement the eight-hour workday through labour action and agreements, dating back to 1856. These early efforts significantly influenced global labour movements.
In Labor’s Time: Shorter Hours, the UAW, and the Struggle for American Unionism (2004, Temple University Press), Jonathan Cutler explains how the idea of the eight-hour workday originated with labour movements in the 19th century and spread internationally. He credits Australian stonemasons in Melbourne in 1856 as early pioneers who successfully campaigned for and achieved an eight-hour workday. Although this was not legislated at a national level, it became a model for later efforts in other countries.
One of the earliest and most significant events advocating for an eight-hour workday was the Haymarket Affair in Chicago in 1886. Workers across the United States went on strike on May 1, 1886, to demand an eight-hour day. During a protest on May 4 in Chicago’s Haymarket Square, a bomb was thrown at police, leading to violence and a harsh crackdown on labour organisers. Despite the tragic outcome, the event became a pivotal moment in labour history and helped solidify the demand for shorter workdays.
The eight-hour day became more widespread in the early 20th century, and major strides were made when Henry Ford implemented it in his factories in 1914—reducing hours and doubling pay to improve worker productivity and morale. Finally, in the United States, the eight-hour day was codified by the Fair Labour Standards Act of 1938, which not only set a minimum wage but also established the standard 40-hour workweek.
The goal of the eight-hour day was to protect workers’ health, allow time for family and personal development, and ensure that labour did not consume a person’s entire life. In Eight Hours: The Workers and the Eight-Hour Workday and the Shorter Workday, Its Philosophy (2021, Legare Street Press), Samuel Gompers, a prominent labor leader and founder of the American Federation of Labor, discusses the international labour movement’s efforts to secure an eight-hour day, especially in the United States. He acknowledges that Uruguay became the first country to adopt a national eight-hour workday law in 1915, while workers in other countries had achieved it through strikes, collective bargaining, or regional legislation before that.
According to Gompers, the philosophy and rationale behind the push for an eight-hour workday are rooted in justice, human dignity, and social progress. Gompers, a pioneering American labour leader, argued that reducing working hours was essential not only for economic fairness but also for improving the moral and intellectual condition of the working class.
Gompers believed that labourers were not mere tools for production, but human beings deserving of time for rest, family, and personal growth. He wrote that "man was not created to toil incessantly," and that shortening the workday would help restore workers’ dignity and humanity.
The eight-hour day was framed as essential for workers to develop themselves morally and socially. Gompers emphasised that leisure time was necessary for education, civic engagement, and cultural participation. In his view, a society that denied workers time for personal development was unjust and unsustainable. Although some critics feared economic loss, Gompers argued that shorter hours would lead to greater productivity, fewer workplace accidents, and healthier workers. Furthermore, it would redistribute work more fairly among the unemployed or underemployed, thereby addressing both poverty and job scarcity.
Gompers linked the eight-hour day to the strengthening of democratic institutions. He believed that when workers had time to engage in public life and self-education, they would become more informed, active citizens capable of contributing to and protecting democracy. The long hours of the industrial era, often exceeding 12–14 hours a day, were seen as a form of exploitation. Gompers viewed the eight-hour demand as a line drawn against unregulated capitalism, insisting that economic systems should serve human needs, not the other way around.
The concepts of "labour" and "workers" are foundational to understanding human societies, economies, and historical development. Examining them through the lenses of definition, history, and economic relevance reveals their multifaceted nature and profound impact.
Historically, the composition of the workforce has varied significantly across cultures and time periods. In pre-industrial societies, labour was often tied to agriculture and artisanal crafts, with family units frequently functioning as economic units. The Industrial Revolution dramatically reshaped who constituted the workforce, drawing large numbers of men, women, and children into factories and mines. Initially, the workforce in many industrialised nations was predominantly male, with women and children often subjected to harsh conditions and lower pay. Over the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, there have been significant shifts, including a dramatic increase in female participation in the formal labour force globally, though disparities in pay and representation persist. The concept of "worker" has also expanded to more explicitly include a vast array of professions, from industrial labourers to service sector employees and knowledge workers.
The term "knowledge worker" was first coined by management consultant and author Peter Ferdinand Drucker in his 1959 book, "Landmarks of Tomorrow: A Report on the New 'Post-Modern' World (1957, Harper & Brothers)." He defined them as high-level workers who apply theoretical and analytical knowledge, typically acquired through formal training and education, to develop new products, services, and solutions.
In an increasingly complex and information-driven world, a specific category of professionals known as "knowledge workers" has become central to economic progress and organisational success. These are individuals whose primary capital is their knowledge, and their main task is to "think for a living."
Unlike manual labourers who rely on physical skills or information workers who primarily process and apply existing information, knowledge workers are tasked with generating new knowledge, innovating, solving complex problems, and driving strategy. Their work is characterised by its intellectual nature, requiring critical thinking, creativity, and often a high degree of autonomy.
Unlike manual labourers who rely on physical skills or information workers who primarily process and apply existing information, knowledge workers are tasked with generating new knowledge, innovating, solving complex problems, and driving strategy. Their work is characterised by its intellectual nature, requiring critical thinking, creativity, and often a high degree of autonomy.
Examples of knowledge workers span a wide array of fields and include professionals such as Information and communication technology (ICT) professionals, physicians and pharmacists, architects and engineers, scientists and researchers, design thinkers, public accountants and lawyers, librarians and archivists, editors and academics.
Peter Drucker's introduction of the "knowledge worker" concept was prescient. He foresaw a fundamental shift in the nature of work, moving away from an economy dominated by manual, blue-collar jobs towards one where the intellectual capabilities and knowledge of employees would be the most valuable assets. Drucker predicted that by the 21st century, the productivity of knowledge workers would be the paramount concern for organisations. This shift was seen as an evolution of the "white-collar worker," a term that emerged in the 1920s to describe office-based employees distinct from industrial labourers. As economies advanced and technology evolved, particularly with the rise of information technology, the role and importance of those who work with their minds rather than their hands became increasingly evident.
Knowledge workers possess a distinct set of characteristics and skills that enable them to thrive in their roles. They typically have advanced or specialised knowledge in their respective fields, often backed by formal education, certifications, and significant experience. Crucially, they are committed to continuously updating and expanding this knowledge base. Their work revolves around handling, analysing, interpreting, and creating information. They use data to inform decisions, devise strategies, and generate new insights.
A hallmark of knowledge workers is their ability to think critically and analytically to solve complex problems, coupled with the creativity to innovate and develop novel solutions.
Knowledge workers often operate with a significant degree of independence. They are responsible for managing their own time, setting priorities, and making decisions related to their tasks. They heavily rely on various forms of technology, including software tools, databases, and communication platforms, to access, process, and disseminate information effectively.
The ability to articulate complex ideas clearly, collaborate effectively with diverse teams, and share knowledge is essential. Given the rapid pace of technological and informational change, a commitment to lifelong learning and the ability to adapt to evolving work environments are crucial.
They are adept at identifying issues, analyzing their components, and developing effective and often innovative solutions. Knowledge workers typically exhibit a desire to learn, grow, and embrace new challenges and opportunities for development.
The rise of the knowledge worker signifies a broader transition towards a "knowledge economy," where knowledge itself is the primary driver of economic growth, innovation, and competitiveness. The contributions of knowledge workers are vital for both individual organisations and the economy as a whole. By generating new ideas, developing new products and services, and improving processes, knowledge workers are at the forefront of innovation, helping organisations stay ahead in a competitive landscape. Their expertise and analytical capabilities provide the foundation for sound strategic planning and effective operational decisions within companies.
Leveraging their specialised skills and technological tools, knowledge workers can streamline workflows, optimise processes, and boost overall organisational performance.
They are key contributors to an organisation's intellectual capital, playing a crucial role in creating, sharing, and managing the knowledge base that underpins its operations and growth.
On a macro level, a skilled and productive cohort of knowledge workers is essential for national economic development, resilience, and the ability to compete globally. The increasing prominence of knowledge workers is reshaping how work is organised, managed, and valued, leading to more flexible work arrangements and a greater emphasis on continuous skill development.
However, the increasing importance of knowledge workers also brings challenges. Concerns exist about equitable access to the education and skills required for these roles, potentially leading to a widening gap between highly skilled knowledge workers and other segments of the workforce. Managing and motivating knowledge workers, fostering environments that nurture their creativity and productivity, and effectively harnessing their intellectual output remain key considerations for organisations in the 21st century.
Debates continue regarding the full recognition and valuation of unpaid care work, predominantly performed by women, as a form of labour. David R. Roediger's "The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (2007, Verso)" explores how racial identity has shaped the definition and experience of the working class in the United States.
