"The teacher tells Little Johnny’s dad, 'Your son copied all the work from Lily, the best student in class!' 'How can you be so sure?' Dad asked.
'Because Lily didn’t know the answer to the first question, she wrote: 'I don’t know', and your son wrote: 'Me neither!'."
"In Culture and Imperialism (1993, New York: Knopf), Edward Said delves into the intricate relationship between cultural development and national identity, presenting these as deeply interconnected and shaped by the broader dynamics of colonialism and imperialism. Said argues that culture is not merely a static repository of artistic or intellectual achievements but a site of power and resistance, intimately tied to the historical and political forces that define nations and their identities.
Said explores how cultural production—literature, music, art, and other forms—has been used both as a tool for imperial domination and as a medium for resistance against it. He identifies how Western powers employed their cultural narratives to legitimize colonial rule, embedding imperialist ideologies in works that portrayed non-European societies as "the Other"—exotic, backward, or incapable of self-governance. Through detailed analyses of works by authors such as Joseph Conrad (Heart of Darkness) and Jane Austen (Mansfield Park), Said illustrates how Western literature often reinforced colonial hierarchies, framing the empire as a civilizing mission.
Yet, culture also becomes a site of resistance where colonized peoples assert their national identity against the homogenizing force of imperialism. Postcolonial authors and thinkers, such as Chinua Achebe, is pivotal in reclaiming and reshaping narratives to reflect the realities and aspirations of his society. Through his work, he challenges the colonial portrayal of his history and identity, foregrounding Indigenous perspectives and redefining cultural development in terms of self-determination.
Said emphasizes that national identity in postcolonial contexts is not a pure, uncontested construct but one profoundly shaped by the colonial encounter. The process of decolonization, both political and cultural, often involves a painful negotiation between the impositions of imperial culture and the reclamation of pre-colonial or indigenous traditions. This negotiation reflects a broader tension: how to build a modern national identity while grappling with the cultural legacies of colonialism.
In Culture and Imperialism, Said uses the concept of "overlapping territories, intertwined histories" to argue that national identities cannot be understood in isolation. The histories of colonizers and colonized are inseparable, resulting in hybrid identities and cultures that complicate any simplistic notion of a return to precolonial purity. He cites examples from literature and history to demonstrate how cultural development in the Global South often draws on the experiences of imperialism while simultaneously rejecting its ideological underpinnings.
For Said, culture is both a reflection of and a battleground for national identity. The struggle to articulate a national identity after colonization often takes place within the cultural sphere, where the reinterpretation of history and tradition plays a central role. In nations emerging from colonial rule, cultural production becomes a means of asserting sovereignty—not just politically but also in the realm of ideas and values.
This process, however, is fraught with contradictions. While postcolonial societies seek to distance themselves from the cultural influences of their former colonizers, they also recognize the transformative effects of colonial modernity. Said examines how this duality manifests in the works of postcolonial intellectuals and artists who engage with Western cultural forms to critique imperialism and articulate a vision of their nation’s future.
Edward Said’s Culture and Imperialism presents cultural development and national identity as inextricably linked, shaped by the legacies of imperialism and the ongoing struggles for postcolonial self-definition. By highlighting the interplay between domination and resistance within the cultural sphere, Said underscores the transformative potential of culture in shaping national identity. His analysis encourages readers to view cultural and national identities not as fixed or singular, but as dynamic, contested, and deeply intertwined with the histories of imperial power and its aftermath.
In Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow (2016, Harper), Yuval Noah Harari explores the role of intellectual growth in shaping nations’ future trajectories by emphasising the transformative power of shared beliefs, knowledge systems, and technological advancements. Harari argues that the evolution of human societies is not solely determined by material resources or military might, but by the narratives and ideologies that bind people together and drive collective action.
A key argument in Homo Deus is the idea that the stories and myths nations tell themselves—whether religious, political, or ideological—serve as a unifying force that fosters cooperation on a large scale. Intellectual growth fuels the refinement and propagation of these narratives, enabling nations to build governance, economics, and social organisation systems. For example, the spread of capitalism was not merely an economic shift but also an intellectual and cultural phenomenon shaped by a collective belief in markets, growth, and progress.
Harari also warns that intellectual stagnation or the inability to adapt to new ideas can lead to the decline of nations. He cites examples of civilizations that fell behind due to rigid adherence to outdated ideologies, while more adaptive societies thrived.
Harari emphasizes that intellectual growth is not neutral; it brings both opportunities and challenges. Technological innovations, fueled by intellectual advancements, can elevate nations by providing solutions to pressing problems, such as healthcare, communication, and infrastructure. However, Harari also raises ethical concerns about the potential misuse of technology, such as artificial intelligence and biotechnology, which could deepen inequalities or threaten fundamental human values.
Nations that harness intellectual growth responsibly, balancing progress with ethical considerations, are more likely to succeed in shaping a sustainable and equitable future.
In Homo Deus, Harari underscores that intellectual growth shapes the future trajectories of nations by fostering innovation, uniting people through shared narratives, and enabling societies to adapt to change. However, he also cautions that intellectual growth must be guided by a thoughtful examination of its ethical implications. Nations that fail to embrace this balance risk falling behind or inadvertently paving the way for their decline.
The seventh reason why a nation should strive to develop is Health and Longevity. Developed nations invest in public health infrastructure, reducing mortality rates and increasing life expectancy. This investment not only improves individual well-being but also contributes to a more productive workforce.
Hans Rosling's 'Factfulness: Ten Reasons We're Wrong About the World—and Why Things Are Better Than You Think" (2018, Flatiron Books) provides a profound examination of global trends and misconceptions, particularly how development correlates with improved health and longevity.
Rosling dismantles the outdated view that the world is sharply divided into "developed" and "developing" countries. He introduces a four-level framework of income groups to better capture the gradual progression of human societies. Through this lens, he illustrates how economic growth, education, and technological advancements interconnect to improve public health and extend lifespans.
Rosling emphasizes that as nations progress economically—from Level 1 (extreme poverty) to Level 4 (wealthier societies)—they experience transformative changes in healthcare access, nutrition, sanitation, and education. For example, a shift from Level 1 to Level 2 allows families to afford shoes, safe drinking water, and basic schooling, directly reducing child mortality and disease prevalence. Similarly, as countries move further along the spectrum, investments in infrastructure like hospitals, vaccination programs, and public health campaigns significantly lower mortality rates, even from historically deadly diseases.
A key insight Rosling presents is the dramatic rise in global life expectancy over the past century. He attributes this to developments such as antibiotics, vaccines, and better maternal care, which became accessible as countries gained wealth and embraced evidence-based public health measures. Rosling also highlights how international collaboration in areas like eradicating smallpox has been a milestone in showing how collective efforts can impact global health.
Visual data plays a crucial role in Rosling’s arguments. Through his Gapminder project, he uses dynamic charts to reveal how once-poor nations, like Vietnam and Bangladesh, have rapidly improved life expectancy, often catching up with wealthier countries despite still being less affluent. He repeatedly underscores that improvements in health and lifespan are not exclusive to the wealthiest nations but have become a global phenomenon.
Rosling’s overarching message is one of optimism grounded in facts. While challenges remain, he argues that understanding global development through accurate data reveals the remarkable progress humanity has made in overcoming dire health crises and fostering longer, healthier lives worldwide.
In Pathologies of Power: Health, Human Rights, and the New War on the Poor (2003, University of California Press), Paul Farmer argues that development and the alleviation of health disparities are deeply interconnected. He critiques conventional development models that often fail to address systemic inequalities, particularly those affecting access to healthcare among marginalized populations.
Farmer emphasizes that health disparities are not random but are rooted in social and structural inequalities perpetuated by economic systems, political decisions, and global power dynamics. He introduces the concept of "structural violence," which refers to the way institutions and social structures harm individuals by denying them access to basic needs like healthcare, education, and clean water. For Farmer, development that does not actively dismantle these structures merely reinforces existing disparities. He advocates for a rights-based approach to health, where the ability to access quality medical care is viewed as a fundamental human right. Development initiatives, in his view, should prioritize equitable healthcare systems that address the root causes of poverty and inequality. By doing so, these initiatives can help mitigate health disparities and empower communities to achieve sustainable progress.
Farmer argues that development is not just in terms of economic growth but as a holistic process that prioritizes social justice, equity, and human rights. His work underscores the moral imperative for nations and institutions to adopt development strategies that directly target health inequities, ensuring that the benefits of progress reach the world’s most vulnerable populations.
The eighth reason why a nation should strive to develop is the Fulfillment of National Potential. Development enables a nation to utilize its human capital, natural resources, and technological innovation effectively. It inspires patriotism and fosters a sense of collective achievement. In The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936, Macmillan), John Maynard Keynes emphasizes the critical role of development in ensuring the full utilization of a nation's resources. Keynes argued that the economy does not naturally gravitate toward full employment of resources, including labour and capital. Instead, it often operates below its potential due to insufficient aggregate demand.
Keynes highlighted that economic underdevelopment often leads to idle resources, including unemployed labour and underused capital. This inefficiency stems from a lack of effective demand rather than the physical absence of resources. Keynes stressed that stimulating investment is essential for development. Through public and private investments, unused resources can be mobilized, leading to increased production and employment.
Keynes advocated for government intervention in times of economic downturns. Public spending on infrastructure, education, and health can stimulate demand, reduce unemployment, and enhance the productive capacity of the nation. He introduced the concept of the multiplier, where an initial increase in investment or government spending generates a more significant overall increase in economic activity and resource utilization. While addressing short-term demand issues, Keynes also recognized the importance of development policies that expand a nation’s productive capacity, such as investing in technology and education.
In summary, Keynes viewed development as a strategic process to harness a nation's idle resources effectively, requiring a proactive role from both private enterprise and government to stimulate demand and drive economic growth.
In Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (2014, Harper), Yuval Noah Harari emphasizes that collective effort and innovation are the cornerstones of a nation's potential and progress. Harari explains that humanity's unique ability to cooperate on a large scale, often through shared myths and imagined orders like religions, nations, and economic systems, enables societies to achieve feats that would be impossible for individuals or smaller groups alone.
This collective imagination fosters trust, coordination, and the pursuit of common goals, allowing for advancements in technology, governance, and culture. Harari argues that innovation thrives in societies where collaboration is deeply ingrained and where the exchange of ideas is encouraged. He also notes that history has shown nations rise to prominence when they embrace these dynamics, leveraging shared ideologies and innovative practices to harness resources, organize labour, and build institutions.
By framing these elements as essential to a nation's development, Harari highlights that it is not just the availability of resources but the ability to mobilize human creativity and collaboration that defines the potential for progress. This perspective underscores the transformative power of human cooperation and the role of shared beliefs in shaping civilizations.
The ninth reason is Future Generations. Development ensures a sustainable legacy for future generations, allowing them to inherit a thriving nation. It secures educational opportunities, economic stability, and environmental health for decades to come.
E.F. Schumacher’s Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered (1973, Blond & Briggs, London) advocates for a profound rethinking of economics, focusing on sustainability and human well-being. Schumacher challenges the mainstream economic focus on growth and consumption, arguing instead for sustainable practices that balance ecological integrity, human needs, and ethical considerations.
He emphasizes that modern industrialization, which prioritizes efficiency and scale, leads to environmental degradation and social inequalities. Instead, Schumacher advocates for appropriate technology—tools and systems designed to meet the needs of local communities without compromising ecological balance. This idea centres on the principle that solutions should align with human and environmental capacities rather than exploiting them.
Schumacher highlights the importance of local self-reliance over globalization. By encouraging local production and consumption, communities can minimize dependency on external resources, reduce environmental impact, and foster resilience. He critiques large-scale industrial agriculture and champions small-scale, organic farming as a sustainable way to nourish populations without exhausting the land.
Ethics and spirituality also play a crucial role in Schumacher's vision. He argues that economic decisions should reflect deeper values, such as compassion and stewardship, rather than mere profit maximization. Schumacher believes that over-reliance on fossil fuels and non-renewable resources jeopardizes the planet's future. He calls for a transition to renewable energy sources and a lifestyle that values sufficiency over excess. Ultimately, Schumacher's philosophy promotes a harmonious coexistence with nature, urging society to adopt practices that ensure the well-being of future generations. This involves reimagining progress as something more holistic and less materialistic—anchored in what he famously termed “economics as if people mattered.”
In Outliers: The Story of Success (2008, Little, Brown and Company), Malcolm Gladwell explores the role of nurturing environments in fostering long-term societal success. He argues that individual achievements are not solely the product of personal talent or hard work but are significantly influenced by external factors, including the environments in which people grow and develop. Gladwell delves into the idea that environments rich in opportunity, support, and meaningful engagement provide the foundation for success. He uses examples like the success of Canadian hockey players to illustrate his point. Players born earlier in the calendar year benefit from age-based grouping in youth leagues, giving them more time to develop physically and receive better coaching. This small advantage compounds over time, illustrating how the structure of an environment can shape outcomes.
Gladwell also highlights cultural legacies and societal structures, such as the rice-paddy agricultural practices in Asia, which demanded meticulous labour and a high degree of cooperation. These environments nurtured traits like discipline, perseverance, and collaboration, which translated into success in education and other fields in modern contexts.
His work underscores that nurturing environments create conditions for individuals to thrive by offering opportunities, removing barriers, and fostering values and habits conducive to long-term success. This perspective shifts the focus from innate ability to the systemic factors that allow talent to flourish.
After knowing why a nation must strive for development, in the next section we will discuss the sources of development financing, bi 'idhnillah."
