"A husband and wife got into a huge fight. They did not speak as they drove down a country road for several miles, and neither of them wanted to talk first. As they passed a barnyard of horses, pigs, goats, sheep, and cows, the wife asked sarcastically, 'Your relatives?'
'Yep', the husband replied, 'in-laws!'"
"National development refers to the comprehensive growth and progress of a country across various dimensions—economic, social, political, and environmental, and this is not without challenges. The challenges of a country’s development are multifaceted and interconnected, involving economic, social, political, and environmental dimensions. These challenges vary based on historical contexts, governance structures, and geographic realities, but some overarching themes remain consistent across nations.
One of the central hurdles is achieving sustainable economic growth while addressing income inequality. In many developing countries, there is a lack of diversification in economic activities, with over-reliance on natural resources or agriculture. This leaves economies vulnerable to global market fluctuations, as emphasized in "Why Nations Fail" by Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson. They discuss how inclusive economic institutions are crucial for sustainable development, while extractive institutions can hinder growth and perpetuate inequality.
Another economic challenge is debt dependency. Nations often rely on foreign loans to fund development projects, leading to cycles of debt repayment that drain resources meant for domestic investment. This issue is explored in "Globalization and Its Discontents" by Joseph E. Stiglitz, which critiques international financial institutions and their role in exacerbating economic instability in developing nations.
Societal inequality, whether based on class, ethnicity, or gender, often creates divisions that hinder collective progress. Education and healthcare disparities exacerbate poverty and reduce human capital development. Jeffrey Sachs, in "The End of Poverty", highlights the importance of investing in health and education systems to break the cycle of poverty. He also points out that neglecting these sectors can entrench inequalities for generations.
Population growth can strain resources, especially in nations with weak infrastructure. Rapid urbanization, a byproduct of development, often leads to the proliferation of slums and inadequate provision of basic services like water, electricity, and waste management.
Political instability and corruption are significant barriers to development. Weak governance and lack of transparency undermine public trust and lead to inefficient allocation of resources. Paul Collier, in "The Bottom Billion", argues that bad governance, combined with conflict and natural resource exploitation, traps nations in poverty and prevents them from competing in global markets.
Another political challenge is the legacy of colonialism and its influence on present-day governance structures. Many nations struggle with borders that were arbitrarily drawn, leading to ethnic conflicts and fragmented national identities.
Environmental degradation poses long-term threats to sustainable development. Deforestation, pollution, and climate change disproportionately affect developing nations, which often lack the resources to mitigate their impact. In "The Age of Sustainable Development", Jeffrey Sachs emphasizes that integrating environmental sustainability into development policies is critical to overcoming this challenge.
In "Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress", Lawrence Harrison and Samuel Huntington (editors) explore how cultural attitudes toward work, education, and governance influence development. Traditional practices and resistance to change can hinder progress, particularly in areas such as gender equality and innovation.
By the way in Indonesia, recently there was a cancellation of an art exhibition of Yos Suprapto's paintings because it was considered vulgar by the curator appointed by the National Gallery. What is the meaning of vulgarity from the perspective of painting? Is the vulgarity associated with the former president of Indonesia and hindering development?
In the context of painting and art, "vulgar" typically refers to works or elements that are considered tasteless, crude, or lacking in refinement according to certain cultural or aesthetic standards. The term can have different connotations depending on the viewer's perspective, cultural background, or the art movement being critiqued.
Paintings that include explicit, provocative, or controversial subjects—such as sexual imagery, violence, or grotesque depictions—might be labelled as vulgar if they are seen as violating social norms of decency. Works that are excessively ornamental, overly sentimental, or pandering to popular tastes without depth can also be considered vulgar. This criticism is often aimed at art that prioritizes commercial appeal over artistic integrity. In some cases, what is considered "vulgar" reflects a rejection of classical or elite art traditions. This perspective might emerge in avant-garde or rebellious art movements aiming to challenge societal norms or provoke thought. Sometimes, the vulgarity in a painting is intentional, aiming to critique societal issues, confront taboos, or highlight uncomfortable truths. In such cases, "vulgar" is not necessarily a negative judgment but a recognition of its boldness or raw expression.
In Ways of Seeing (1972), John Berger discusses how societal norms and power structures profoundly shape our perception of art. According to Berger, these norms and structures influence not only how art is created and consumed but also how it is interpreted, judged, and valued. Berger argues that art does not exist in a vacuum; it reflects the values and ideologies of the society in which it is produced. What is considered offensive or inappropriate is often dictated by the dominant power structures, such as religion, political systems, and economic conditions.
For example, during the Renaissance, religious themes dominated European art, and deviations from this norm might have been viewed as heretical or offensive. In modern times, art that critiques capitalism or challenges political authority may face censorship or controversy.
Berger argues that art does not exist in a vacuum; it reflects the values and ideologies of the society in which it is produced. What is considered offensive or inappropriate is often dictated by the dominant power structures, such as religion, political systems, and economic conditions.
For example, during the Renaissance, religious themes dominated European art, and deviations from this norm might have been viewed as heretical or offensive. In modern times, art that critiques capitalism or challenges political authority may face censorship or controversy.
Berger highlights the importance of context in understanding art. A work of art's meaning can change depending on who is viewing it and under what circumstances. Societal norms and power dynamics influence what aspects of art are emphasized or ignored. For instance, nudity in classical art was often celebrated for its "purity," while similar depictions in contemporary art might be labelled as obscene depending on cultural attitudes toward the human body.
Berger extensively critiques how women are portrayed in art through the "male gaze," a perspective shaped by patriarchal norms. Women in classical European paintings were often depicted as passive objects of desire for a presumed male viewer, reflecting broader gender dynamics. The perception of such art as beautiful or offensive often depends on the prevailing societal attitudes toward gender and sexuality. Berger emphasizes that these portrayals reinforce existing power structures rather than challenge them.
Berger discusses how the mass reproduction of art (e.g., in books, posters, or digital formats) alters its meaning. This democratization of art detaches it from its original context and can shift its perceived significance. Societal norms play a role in determining which reproductions are widely disseminated and how they are framed. For instance, controversial art might be excluded from mainstream reproduction channels, preserving the status quo.
The art market, heavily influenced by economic power structures, dictates which works are celebrated and which are marginalized. Art that aligns with dominant cultural values is more likely to be promoted, while subversive or critical works may be suppressed or dismissed. Berger critiques how the commodification of art turns it into a status symbol for the wealthy, distancing it from the majority of society and limiting its accessibility.
Berger ultimately argues that societal norms and power structures are not neutral; they are tools of control. By shaping what is acceptable or unacceptable, these forces determine the visibility, value, and interpretation of art. His work encourages readers to critically question the assumptions underlying their perceptions of art and to recognize the influence of power in shaping those perceptions.
This analysis offers a framework for understanding why certain art forms or themes provoke controversy and how societal values evolve to redefine what is deemed offensive or inappropriate.
Linda Nochlin, in The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Art and Society (1989, Harper & Row), explores how art reflects, critiques, and challenges societal values, often using provocative or "vulgar" imagery to question established norms. Nochlin examines the interplay between art, politics, and cultural values, emphasizing how artists engage with social structures and ideologies to provoke critical reflection.
Nochlin argues that art serves as both a reflection of the values of its time and a tool for critiquing those values. By portraying everyday life, societal structures, and historical events, artists engage with the cultural and political dynamics of their era.
For example, the works of Gustave Courbet, such as The Stone Breakers (1849), highlight the struggles of the working class, challenging the romanticized depictions of rural life common in 19th-century art. Courbet’s focus on the harsh realities of labour was seen as "vulgar" by the elites because it disrupted the idyllic narratives preferred by the bourgeoisie.
Provocative or vulgar imagery often serves as a deliberate strategy to unsettle societal complacency. Nochlin emphasizes that artists use such techniques to disrupt traditional aesthetic standards and question dominant ideologies.
Édouard Manet’s Olympia (1863), for example, presented a nude woman in a confrontational and unapologetic pose, directly engaging with the viewer. This subverted the traditional portrayal of nudes as passive and idealized, challenging bourgeois attitudes toward sexuality and gender roles.
Nochlin critiques how women have historically been portrayed in art, reflecting patriarchal values that often reduced them to objects of beauty or morality. She argues that challenging these portrayals is a form of critique against societal norms. Her essay Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists? extends this critique by examining how systemic gender biases excluded women from artistic recognition and constrained their creative opportunities.
Nochlin highlights realism as a powerful tool for critiquing societal values. By depicting subjects deemed "unworthy" of fine art—such as labourers, urban poverty, or domestic life—realist artists like Courbet and Honoré Daumier challenged traditional hierarchies of subject matter and forced viewers to confront uncomfortable truths about their society. Such depictions were often criticized as vulgar because they rejected idealization and aesthetic refinement, prioritizing honesty over pleasing the viewer.
Nochlin argues that art is inherently political, even when it appears apolitical. The choice of subject matter, style, and audience reflects the artist’s engagement with societal values and power structures. Jacques-Louis David’s revolutionary paintings, such as The Death of Marat (1793), are overtly political, using dramatic imagery to celebrate revolutionary ideals and critique monarchy and oppression.
According to Nochlin, what is deemed "vulgar" often reveals underlying societal anxieties. By incorporating vulgarity, artists force audiences to question why certain subjects or styles are excluded from the realm of high art. Examples include Edgar Degas’s depictions of laundresses and ballerinas, which exposed the exploitative conditions faced by working-class women. These images blurred the lines between beauty and exploitation, challenging idealized notions of femininity.
Nochlin critiques how traditional art often enforces narrow ideals of beauty that align with dominant cultural values. By rejecting these ideals, artists can challenge societal norms and propose alternative ways of seeing. For instance, Vincent van Gogh’s raw, emotive depictions of rural life, such as The Potato Eaters (1885), were criticized for their lack of polish but served as a critique of societal indifference to poverty.
Linda Nochlin’s The Politics of Vision underscores how art functions as a battleground for negotiating societal values, with provocative and vulgar imagery serving as tools to question, critique, and reimagine those values. By rejecting aesthetic refinement or tackling taboo subjects, artists create space for critical engagement, exposing the ideological underpinnings of what society deems acceptable or beautiful. This perspective encourages a deeper understanding of art’s role in both reflecting and shaping cultural and political discourse.
Now back to national development challenges. Economic issues such as lack of diversification, income inequality, and debt dependency hinder a country's ability to achieve self-sustaining growth. Economic development is a key pillar of national development, as it provides resources for improving infrastructure, education, and healthcare. For instance, countries trapped in cycles of debt or dependent on a narrow range of exports often find it difficult to invest in other areas of national development.
Social disparities, such as unequal access to education, healthcare, and resources, weaken the human capital of a nation, which is a critical driver of development. A poorly educated or unhealthy population limits a country's workforce potential and slows innovation. Addressing these disparities is essential for fostering national cohesion and long-term progress.
Stable governance, the rule of law, and effective policies are prerequisites for national development. Corruption, political instability, and weak institutions undermine development efforts by misallocating resources and eroding public trust. National development thrives in environments where governments are transparent, accountable, and focused on long-term goals.
Environmental sustainability is a critical component of national development, especially in a world facing climate change. Natural disasters, resource depletion, and environmental degradation can undo years of development progress. For example, rising sea levels and deforestation directly threaten livelihoods and infrastructure in many developing nations.
National development is not confined to GDP growth but includes improvements in living standards, social equity, and environmental preservation. Works like "The Age of Sustainable Development" by Jeffrey Sachs emphasize that national development must balance economic growth with environmental and social considerations. Addressing these challenges is essential for any nation aiming to achieve holistic and sustainable development, where economic prosperity is accompanied by social justice, good governance, and environmental stewardship.
Taxes in development play a fundamental role in a country’s development by providing the financial foundation necessary for governments to function and address the needs of their societies. They are a central pillar of public finance, supporting infrastructure development, public services, social welfare programs, and economic stability. However, the role of taxes extends beyond revenue generation; they are also critical for shaping societal behaviour, reducing inequality, and fostering governance and accountability. Taxes are the primary source of government revenue, enabling investments in essential public services such as education, healthcare, transportation, and security. For instance, well-functioning tax systems allow countries to fund schools, build hospitals, and maintain roads, which are prerequisites for economic growth and societal well-being. Infrastructure development, often seen as a cornerstone of progress, relies heavily on tax-financed public investments, as private sector contributions alone may not meet societal needs, especially in unprofitable or underserved areas.
While essential for revenue generation and governance, tax policies can have several drawbacks of poorly designed or implemented. High tax rates on income or profits can discourage individuals from working harder or investing in productive activities. For instance, steep income taxes might reduce the incentive to earn more, while high corporate taxes can deter businesses from expanding or innovating. Excessive taxation, especially on wealth or capital gains, can lead to capital flight, where individuals and corporations move their assets to countries with lower tax rates. This undermines domestic revenue generation. Similarly, high tax burdens often encourage tax evasion or avoidance, reducing the effectiveness of the policy. In a globalized economy, high corporate tax rates can make a country less attractive for foreign direct investment (FDI) and push businesses to relocate to tax-friendlier jurisdictions. This can hurt job creation and economic growth.
Some tax policies, particularly indirect taxes like value-added tax (VAT) or sales taxes, are regressive, meaning they disproportionately burden low-income households. These taxes take up a larger percentage of income from poorer individuals compared to wealthier ones, exacerbating income inequality.
Tax exemptions or loopholes often benefit specific groups or industries, creating an unequal playing field. Wealthier individuals or large corporations with access to skilled accountants and legal teams can exploit such loopholes, reducing their tax liabilities compared to average citizens or smaller businesses."
