[Part 9]When a natural forest is cleared to make way for oil palm plantations, the most immediate and devastating consequence is the profound loss of biodiversity. Instead of a complex ecosystem supporting thousands of species, the land becomes a monoculture that can only sustain a fraction of the original wildlife, often pushing endangered animals like orangutans and pygmy elephants further toward extinction. From a climate perspective, this transition triggers a massive release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, particularly if the forest sits on carbon-rich peatlands that are drained for cultivation. Furthermore, the removal of the dense forest canopy and intricate root systems leads to significant soil erosion and alters the local water cycle, which frequently results in more severe flooding and a reduction in water quality for nearby communities. Ultimately, while such plantations provide significant economic revenue and versatile products used globally, they often come at the heavy expense of irreplaceable ecological services and the long-term health of our planet's atmosphere.Biodiversity represents the immense variety of life on Earth and serves as the essential foundation for the health and stability of our entire planet. It is not merely a count of different species, but rather a complex and interconnected system that includes genetic variation within populations and the vast array of different ecosystems like wetlands, forests, and oceans. This natural variety ensures that ecosystems remain resilient and capable of recovering from environmental stresses, such as droughts or disease, because a diverse environment is far more likely to contain species that can adapt to changing conditions. Furthermore, humanity relies heavily on these biological resources for fundamental needs, including the pollination of our crops, the discovery of new medicines, and the purification of the water we drink. When we protect biodiversity, we are effectively safeguarding the natural services that make human life possible and ensuring that the global environment remains balanced for future generations.
Indonesia's tropical rainforests are home to an extraordinary array of endemic species that cannot be found anywhere else on the planet, making the archipelago one of the most significant hotspots for global biodiversity. One of the most iconic inhabitants is the Critically Endangered Orangutan, particularly the Tapanuli species found in North Sumatra, which represents the rarest great ape in existence. Deep within the dense undergrowth, one might also encounter the magnificent Rafflesia arnoldii, a parasitic plant that produces the largest individual flower in the world and emits a pungent scent to attract pollinators. Furthermore, the Indonesian wilderness provides a sanctuary for the elusive Javan Rhinoceros and the Sumatran Tiger, both of which are currently teetering on the edge of extinction due to habitat fragmentation. These forests also support unique avian life such as the Maleo bird, which relies on geothermal heat to incubate its eggs, as well as the vibrant Birds of Paradise in Papua that exhibit some of the most complex mating rituals in the animal kingdom.
The forests of Papua represent some of the most pristine and biodiverse wilderness areas remaining on the planet, hosting a spectacular array of wildlife that has evolved in relative isolation over millions of years. Perhaps the most celebrated examples of this unique biodiversity are the various species of Birds of Paradise, such as the Wilson’s Bird-of-Paradise and the Greater Bird-of-Paradise, which are renowned for their extraordinarily vibrant plumage and the complex, theatrical courtship dances performed by the males. In addition to these avian wonders, Papua is home to the remarkable tree kangaroo, a marsupial that has adapted to a life high in the canopy rather than on the ground, and the long-beaked echidna, a primitive egg-laying mammal that is found nowhere else in the world. The region also boasts an incredible variety of flora, including thousands of unique orchid species and the towering Agathis trees that dominate the primary forest landscape. Protecting these forests is of paramount importance, as many of these species are highly specialised and remain extremely vulnerable to any significant changes in their natural habitat.
The "Land Ethic" is a revolutionary philosophical concept introduced by Aldo Leopold in his seminal work, "A Sand County Almanack", which was published posthumously in 1949 by Oxford University Press. At its core, the Land Ethic suggests that the boundaries of the human community should be expanded to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, collectively referred to as "the land." Leopold argued that we must shift our perspective from seeing the natural world merely as a commodity to be exploited for economic gain to viewing ourselves as "plain members and citizens" of a wider biotic community. He famously proposed that an action is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community, and wrong when it tends otherwise. This ethical framework demands that humans exercise moral restraint and assume a sense of stewardship, ensuring that our interactions with nature are guided by respect and a deep understanding of the interconnectedness of all living things.Aldo Leopold asserts that humans must transition from being conquerors of the land to becoming plain members and citizens of the biotic community. The assertion is rooted in the belief that the traditional "conqueror" role of humans is ultimately self-defeating and intellectually flawed. He argued that throughout history, the conqueror mentality has led humans to believe they possess a superior understanding of the natural world, when in reality, the immense complexity of ecosystems means that our interventions often cause unforeseen and disastrous consequences. By viewing ourselves as members of a wider biological community, we acknowledge that our existence is inextricably linked to the health of the soil, water, and wildlife, thereby necessitating a shift from exploitative mastery to a role characterised by humility and mutual respect. This perspective essentially demands that we apply the same ethical standards we use within human society to our relationship with the environment, recognising that the integrity of the whole depends upon the well-being of every interconnected part.Applying Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic to the recurring floods in Sumatra requires a radical shift in how we manage the island’s landscapes, moving away from a model of aggressive land exploitation toward one of ecological restoration. Under the "conqueror" mentality, the vast rainforests and peatlands of Sumatra have been drained and cleared for industrial plantations, a process that destroys the natural sponge-like capacity of the soil to absorb heavy tropical rainfall.If we were to act as "plain members" of the biotic community, our primary objective would be to protect and restore the integrity of these critical watersheds and peat domes, recognising that the stability of human settlements downstream is entirely dependent on the health of the forests upstream. This would involve a transition toward "nature-based solutions," such as reforestation and the preservation of riparian buffer zones, which respect the natural flow of water rather than attempting to control it through inadequate infrastructure. Ultimately, adopting this philosophy would mean acknowledging that the frequent flooding is not merely a natural disaster, but a direct symptom of a broken relationship between human industry and the biological community of Sumatra. Applying Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic to the proposed expansion of palm oil plantations in Papua necessitates a profound re-evaluation of how we value one of the world’s last remaining frontiers of primary rainforest. From the perspective of a "conqueror," these vast landscapes are often viewed merely as underutilised capital or "empty" spaces ripe for economic transformation; however, the Land Ethic demands that we recognise Papua as a complex, living biotic community with its own inherent right to exist and function. Adopting the role of a "plain member" would mean that any development plan must first ensure the integrity and stability of the existing ecosystem, which in Papua's case includes irreplaceable peat swamps and unique high-altitude forests that serve as critical carbon sinks. Furthermore, this philosophy would prioritise the traditional ecological knowledge of indigenous Papuan communities, who have lived as members of this biological community for millennia, over industrial models that rely on total land clearance and monoculture. Ultimately, applying this ethical framework suggests that the long-term biological health of Papua’s soil, water, and endemic wildlife should never be sacrificed for short-term economic gains, as the loss of such a unique environment would represent a moral failure and an irreversible rupture in the global biotic community.
In his influential book "Biodiversity and Environmental Philosophy: An Introduction" (2005), Sahotra Sarkar defines biodiversity not as a fixed biological entity, but as a normative concept that represents the intended target of conservation biology. He argues that biodiversity encompasses the total variety of life across all levels of biological organisation—from genetic variation and species richness to the complexity of entire ecosystems—while acknowledging that it is practically impossible to measure every single biological feature. Consequently, Sarkar suggests that in the field, we must use "surrogates," such as indicator species or specific habitat types, to operationally represent this vast diversity for the purpose of systematic conservation planning.Regarding its connections with environmental philosophy, Sarkar bridges the gap between scientific epistemology and ethics by critiquing the traditional notion of "intrinsic value" in nature, which he finds philosophically insufficient for policy-making. Instead, he proposes an anthropocentric justification based on "transformative value," asserting that biodiversity is vital because our interactions with the natural world—through aesthetic appreciation, scientific inquiry, and exploration—have the power to fundamentally transform and enrich human preferences and intellectual lives. By framing conservation biology as a goal-oriented or "normative" science, Sarkar argues that the choice of what we conserve is ultimately a philosophical decision, while the methods used to achieve those goals remain a matter of rigorous scientific and mathematical modelling.According to Sarkar, the decision regarding what specifically should be preserved is not merely a biological question but a deeply philosophical one that depends on identifying which components of the natural world hold "transformative value" for humanity. He argues that we must prioritise the conservation of biological entities and systems that have the potential to challenge and expand our existing human values, such as rare species, unique evolutionary lineages, and complex ecosystems that provide opportunities for scientific discovery and aesthetic awe. Sarkar posits that since we cannot preserve every single element of the living world due to limited resources, we must philosophically choose "surrogates" that represent the broader diversity of life, ensuring that the most distinct and irreplaceable features of our planet's biological heritage are protected. Ultimately, he suggests that we should conserve those aspects of nature that ensure the continued flourishing of both the physical environment and the human intellectual experience, framing conservation as a deliberate choice to maintain the richness of the world for the sake of future human transformation.The central message of Aldo Leopold’s "A Sand County Almanac" is that humanity must cultivate a new ethical consciousness known as the "Land Ethic," which shifts our role from being masters of nature to being humble members of a wider biological community. He asserts that we have a moral obligation to protect the integrity and beauty of the ecosystem not because of its economic utility, but because the land itself possesses an inherent right to exist and thrive. In contrast, Sahotra Sarkar’s "Biodiversity and Environmental Philosophy" conveys the message that conservation is a normative, value-driven science that must be grounded in rational human interests rather than abstract claims of nature’s intrinsic rights. Sarkar argues that we must protect biodiversity primarily for its "transformative value," meaning its profound ability to enrich the human experience, expand our knowledge, and alter our cultural preferences through scientific and aesthetic engagement. While Leopold speaks to our moral conscience and our spiritual connection to the earth, Sarkar provides a logical and systematic framework for making difficult conservation choices in a world of limited resources, yet both authors ultimately urge us to recognise that the survival of a diverse natural world is essential for the future of humanity.
The contrasting philosophies of Aldo Leopold and Sahotra Sarkar could profoundly reshape the drafting of environmental laws in Indonesia by providing two different, yet complementary, justifications for stricter regulations. If Indonesian legislators adopted Leopold’s "Land Ethic," the legal framework would likely move toward granting legal personhood to natural features, such as rivers or forests, similar to the "Rights of Nature" laws seen in other nations, thereby making the destruction of ecosystems a violation of inherent rights regardless of economic impact. Conversely, applying Sarkar’s "transformative value" would lead to laws that prioritise the protection of biodiversity as a vital resource for human intellectual and cultural development, justifying the preservation of Papuan or Sumatran forests as irreplaceable laboratories for scientific research and sites of national aesthetic heritage. While a Leopold-inspired law would focus on the moral duty to protect the "integrity and beauty" of the Indonesian archipelago, a Sarkar-inspired policy would focus on "systematic conservation planning" to ensure that the most unique biological "surrogates" are maintained for the benefit of future generations. Ultimately, integrating both perspectives could result in a robust legal system that protects Indonesia's natural wealth both for its own sake and for its power to transform and enrich the lives of its citizens.
[Part 7]
