Stories from Cananga Tree (4)

"A bored man was idling on the sidewalk when he saw a man selling apples close by. He approached him, and asked, 'How much do these apples cost?' The vendor replied, 'An apple costs $1 and an apple seed costs $2.'

Confused, the man asked, 'Why are you selling the seeds more expensive?' The merchant said, 'Apple seeds are known to make you so many times smarter. Why don't you try them?'

Skeptical, the man handed over $4 and purchased two seeds. As he walked a little bit away and started chewing them, he realized that he could have just bought an apple and eaten those seeds. Hurrying back to the hawker, he asked, 'Don't you realize that people could just buy an apple and eat those seeds instead of buying seeds separately?' The khoja smiled, and said, 'See? I told you that you'll become smarter!'"

"The depth of contemplation depends, before anything else, on the level of faith of the individuals and their closeness to Allah. The stronger the faith, the easier it is for them to contemplate Allah’s domain and to invoke thereof the noblest feelings of love and appreciation of their Creator. However, this is a subjective matter, which is known only to Allah and the believers themselves. The second factor is related to the personality of the believers and their innate ability to concentrate without becoming tired or bored quickly. This quality depends mostly on the nature of the nervous system with which they were granted by the Almighty," Cananga continued.

"Some psychological studies were conducted on extroverts and introverts, showed that the power of concentration has a biological basis in the human nervous system and that it lies in the reticular formation and activating system. In introverts, the reticular formation magnifies the nervous signals sent by the various sense organs to the brain. As a result, these people have a greater ability to concentrate and can do so for a longer period of time. Such individuals are content with the least sensory stimulation in their environment; consequently, they tend to prefer solitude and are introspective. They generally cannot tolerate loud voices or high- pitched music, and do not like very bright colors. They prefer activities which do not require them to mix with people and participate in excit- ing activities, such as reading alone, or working in the garden, or in the library. They enjoy their routine work without getting bored, and tend to be careful in planning their life affairs. In their social relations they are reticent, not revealing their secrets except to very few of their clo- sest friends. They rarely show explosive emotions, or react in a hostile, angry, or spontaneous manner. The results of many experiments have confirmed that introverts can do work which demands continuous concentration for long periods, with only a narrow margin of error caused by inhibition and fatigue. We can therefore expect this type of people to be able to engage in deep cognitive activities for a compara- tively long time. And if they are also meditative believers, they can engage in deep contemplation on the creation longer and more deeply than other people.

On the other hand, extroverts have a nervous system whose reticu- lar formation inhibits or weakens the nervous signals and stimuli that go to the upper centers of the brain. Consequently, and contrary to the previous type, such people need intense and exciting experiences in their environment to substitute for the inhibition of their nervous reticular formation – at least this is what the supporters of this theory claim. They like public gatherings, and enjoy having a large number of friends, because they are in great need of stimulation, a change of scenery, and constant conversation. They dislike loneliness, are averse to reading, and are impatient with routine activities. They often move house, and change jobs, food, friends, and even spouses. They do not hide their feelings, and they can be violent. They are quick-tempered, but forgive quickly, and they prefer work that does not demand con- tinuous concentration, or is repetitive. Laboratory experiments have also shown that extroverts make more mistakes and that they concen- trate less than introverts in various mental and physical activities. If this is true, by virtue of their nervous constitution, these people may be less patient than others when it comes to deep and lengthy thinking and cognitive activities, though their faith and commitment may be similar. But even if we accept the fact that introverts are on a higher level than extroverts in the sphere of contemplation, this does not automatically mean that extroverts are of a lower standing. Indeed, by virtue of their nervous and psychological system, they may surpass the introverts in Islamic endeavors that demand mixing with people and making friends or speaking in public. In any case, most people are somewhere between introvert and extrovert, the numbers gradually decreasing toward either extreme.

The third factor that affects the depth of contemplation is a psychological one. Indeed, contemplation requires peace of mind and tranquillity, as well as both psychological and physical health. Physical health is without doubt essential for enhancing the depth of contemplation. Indeed, it is obvious that the sick person, the over-eating obese individual, or the one suffering from drug addiction cannot elevate his spiritual status to a high level of contemplation.

The believer who is afflicted with anxiety, depression, obsession, hypochondria, or any other psychological disorder cannot be expected to contemplate with a high degree of concentration. Neurotics may be able to meditate on a low level, but those afflicted with psychosis, mental derangement, severe mental retardation or senility may not even be able to do that. Thus, between tranquil normality and severe psychosis, there are degrees of psychological and emotional states that affect the ability to contemplate in proportion to the severity of each case.

Undoubtedly, for the contemplative believer, the psychological malady is more of a burden than the physical malady. Many worshippers welcome physical maladies since they claim that such illnesses may become an opportunity for deeper pondering and contemplation and more spiritually motivated worshipping and remembrance. On the other hand, worry, anxiety, depression, and a heavy heart are all enemies to the tranquillity needed by believers in their contemplation: hence, the Prophet’s (ﷺ) prayer in which he (ﷺ) asks Allah to protect him (ﷺ) from anxiety, sadness, weakness and laziness. In psychiatric and clinical psychological practice, we'll find that these emotional states from which the Prophet (ﷺ) asked Allah to protect him (ﷺ), are meant to show the main symptoms of states of anxiety and depression.

The fourth factor is the effect of the environment on believers and concerns how they deal with the needs and problems of everyday life, and the extent to which these needs can impede or enhance their ability to contemplate. For instance, a Muslim man who has a kind and dutiful wife, who teaches Qur’anic interpretation at university several hours a week, and who lives in a country where all the requirements of comfortable living are provided, will find that everything in his environment encourages perseverance in contemplation and meditation. In contrast, a believer who has to work for long strenuous hours in some private corporation, spending most of his time in commercial accounting and government tenders, then finishes his tiring work by standing in long queues before bakeries and gas-stations to provide the necessities of living for himself and his dissatisfied family will certainly not find the time or the tranquillity for profound contemplation—even though he may be equal to the other person in his faith, and similar to him in his nervous and psychological disposition.

Fifth, the child-rearing practices of some cultures, whether they are Islamic or not, inculcate in their people, from early childhood, the love and appreciation of natural and artificial artistic beauty. Adults who grew up in such cultures then spend much of their time and money, enjoying and contemplating a picturesque landscape or buying a beautiful painting. On the other hand, some cultures bring up their people to be attracted by very little beyond the physical beauty of women and maybe the appreciation of poetry and local art.

Sadly, many of our Muslim societies fit into the second category. In such cultures, the few people who somehow have a talent for appreciating natural beauty and can spend time meditating on it may often appear rather eccentric to their compatriots. One would expect believers who come from a culture that encourages the appreciation of natural beauty to be better contemplators than those coming from cultures that do not bring up their children to admire the aesthetic aspects of life. It is this latter group which the Qur’an addresses when it speaks about the beauty of Allah’s creation and the different colors and hues in people, animals, and rocks.

The sixth factor depends on how far people are acquainted with and have knowledge of the objects of their contemplation because they will more easily choose and appreciate objects of contemplation that are in their familiar surroundings. For instance, whereas you may look at the sky and meditate on its charming beauty, its spaciousness, and its twinkling stars, believers who are experts in astronomy will look at the sky and ponder on what their eyes can and cannot see. They see in the scattered sparkling stars, billions of them hurl their fires into the space beyond; they see millions of constellations that are millions of light-years away, traveling away from one another at formidable speeds of up to 40,000 miles per second. Such scientists look at the sky and truly appreciate that the universe is progressively expanding, and can thus understand the verse of the Qur’an,

وَالسَّمَاۤءَ بَنَيْنٰهَا بِاَيْىدٍ وَّاِنَّا لَمُوْسِعُوْنَ

'And the heaven We constructed bi-aydin [literally mean with 'hands,' but in this context deciphered as 'with strength'], and indeed, We are [its] expander.' [QS. Adh-Dhariyat (51):47].

They also feel the Oneness of Allah in the unity of His creation. They see this unity in the electrons, protons, and other sub-atomic particles that constitute the building blocks of everything in this universe.

Another factor that influences the depth of contemplation is companionship. The Prophet (ﷺ) said,

الرَّجُلُ عَلَى دِينِ خَلِيلِهِ فَلْيَنْظُرْ أَحَدُكُمْ مَنْ يُخَالِلُ

'A man follows the religion of his khalil [close friend, best friend, trusted person]; so each one should consider whom he makes his khalil.' [Sunan Abi Dawud; Hasan according to Al-Albani]

Bad example is a great handicap, good example and companionship make one of the most important factors affecting the profundity of the believer’s contemplation. It is for this reason that a disciple or murÏd can benefit much from his association and identification with a worshipper who has reached the level of the tranquil soul (al-nafs al-mutma’innah) in the person of his spiritual master.

The eighth factor that affects the depth of contemplation is the nature of the object of contemplation and meditation. The ease with which people can contemplate the natural creation, such as the mountains, the rivers, and the forests, by thinking of human inventions and relating them to the grace of Allah. This is because inventions need a greater degree of abstraction than natural things. Moreover, some natural phenomena immediately stimulate thought and strong feelings, shaking the psychological and spiritual aspects to the core, and imposing themselves on their hearts and minds. For instance, the dazzling flash of lightning, the deafening rumble of thunder, the heavy downpour of rain, or the roaring of the wind – all have a definite impact on the human soul and can easily lead to effortless contemplation connected with the fear of Allah and hope for His mercy.

If you contemplate this universe, you will find that Allah is the Creator of this universe and all that is found therein including time and space. Every day of a month and every month of a year is created by Hirn out of His infinite wisdom. Every minute of one's life is a divine gift that should be utilized to seek Allah's pleasure and to make it a prologue to a better life in the Hereafter. Looking at it from this angle, all days and months are alike. None is useless, unlucky, or devoid of sanctity.

However, Allah has attached a special sanctity to some particular days or months in the sense that some specific rules are prescribed to observe them, or the reward of virtuous deeds is increased therein. It is, therefore, incumbent upon every Muslim to know the specific rules prescribed for these special days and months and the peculiar merits associated with them.

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. This calendar enumerates the Hijri era, whose epoch was established as the Islamic New Year in 622 CE. The Hijri calendar is regarded as a development that had a major cultural impact. The first one to introduce this system was 'Umar ibn Al-Khattab (رضي الله عنه). There are several reports which speak of the background.

Dr. 'Ali Muhammad as-Sallabi writes that It was narrated that Maymoon ibn Mahh said, 'A document that was dated in Sha'ban came to 'Umar, and he said, 'Is this Sha'ban of last year, or Sha'ban of the coming year, or the Sha'ban we are in now?' Then he gathered the Companions and said to them, 'Set up something for the people that they can refer to.'

Freedom was protected and guaranteed at the time of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs, but it also had limits and restrictions. Hence society flourished and advanced. Freedom is a basic right for individuals and societies, through which they realize themselves and fulfil their potential. If freedom is taken away from a society, its most important fundamentals are taken away and it becomes as if it is dead.

Freedom in Islam sheds rays of light that make man conscious of his connection with Allah, and through this connection, man can rise to the most sublime levels. He becomes eager to do righteous deeds and hastens to seek the pleasure of the Rabb of heaven and earth. Freedom is one of the foundations of Muslim society which was realized during the time of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs in the most sublime form, a shining example that reflects down throughout history.

So, someone suggested using the Byzantine (Roman) calendar, but it was pointed out that it was too long as they dated it from the time of Alexander III of Macedon. Someone else suggested using the Persian calendar, but they said that every time a new king came along, he abolished what had gone before. Then they agreed to look at how long the Prophet (ﷺ) had stayed in Madinah, and they found that he had stayed there for ten years, so they based their calendar on the Hijrah of the Prophet (ﷺ).

It was narrated that 'Uthman ibn 'Ubaydullah' said that he heard Sa'eed ibn al-Musayyib say, ''Umar ibn al-Khattab gathered the Muhajireen and Ansar together and said, 'From when should we date our history?' 'Ali ibn Abi Talib (رضي الله عنه) said to him, 'From the time when the Prophet (ﷺ) came out of the land of shirk' i.e., from the day he migrated. So 'Umar adopted that date for the beginning of the calendar.'

And it was narrated that Sa'eed ibn al-Musayyib said, 'The first one to establish the calendar was 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, two and half years into his caliphate. He reached a decision in consultation with 'Ali ibn Abi Talib'.

Abu az-Zanad said, ''Umar consulted others concerning the calendar, and they agreed upon the Hijrah.'

Ibn Hajr narrated the reason why they chose Muharram for the beginning of the calendar and not Rabee' al-Awal, the month in which the Prophet (ﷺ) actually migrated: the Sahabah who advised 'Umar suggested four events that could be used as the starting-point for the calendar: the Prophet's (ﷺ) birth, the beginning of his (ﷺ) mission, his (ﷺ) Hijrah and his death (ﷺ). But they found that there was some dispute as to the year of his birth and the beginning of his mission, and they abandoned the idea of dating the calendar from his death because that would provoke grief and sorrow in the Muslims. So there was no other option left but the Hijrah. And they put it back from Rabee' al- Awwal to Muharram because the initial resolve to migrate came in Muharram. The second Pledge of al-'Aqabah, whlch was the precursor to the Hijrah, had taken place in Dhu al-Hijjah; the first new month to begin after that pledge and resolve to migrate was Muharram, so it was apt that this month should be chosen for the beginning of the calendar. Then Ibn Hajar said, 'This is the most appropriate event to be regarded as the beginning, which took place in Muharram.

By means of this important administrative event, 'Umar contributed to the creation of unity throughout the Arabian Peninsula, based on unity of religion, unity of the nation with no class differences, and unity of purpose by having a single calendar.

'Umar was the first one to be given the title of Ameer al-Mu 'mineen. When Abu Bakr (رضي الله عنه), who had been known as Khaleefah Rasoolullah (The Successor of the Messenger of Allah) died, the Muslims said, 'Whoever comes after 'Umar will be known as the Successor of the Successor of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ), and that will be too long-winded; let us agree upon a title which may be given to the caliph, by which successive caliphs may be addressed.' Some of the Companions said, 'We are the believers (al-Mu'mineen) and 'Umar is our leader (Ameer).' So, it was shura of the Companions gave the title.

It was narrated from Ibn Shihab that 'Umar ibn 'Abdul-'Azeez asked Abu Bakr ibn Sulayman ibn Abi Khaythamah, 'Why did Abu Bakr used to write, 'From Abu Bakr, the Successor of the Messenger of Allah (ﷺ),' whereas 'Umar (&) used to write, 'From 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, the Successor of Abu Bakr? Who was first one to write "From Ameer al-Mu 'mineen ?' He said, 'My grandmother ash-Shifa', who was one of the first women to migrate, and when 'Umar went to the market he used to visit her, told me that 'Umar ibn al-Khattab wrote to a governor in Iraq saying, 'Send me two noble and strong men so that I can ask them about Iraq and its people.' The governor of Iraq sent him Labeed ibn Rabee'ah and 'Adiyy ibn Hatim. They came to Madinah and dismounted in the courtyard of the mosque, then they entered the mosque, where they found 'Amr ibn al-As (رضي الله عنه). They said to him, '0' 'Amr, ask permission for us to enter and meet the Ameer al-Mu'mineen.' 'Amr entered and said, 'Peace be upon you, 0' Ameer al-Mu'mineen.' 'Umar said to him, 'Why are you calling me by this name, 0' son of al-'As? You have to tell me where you got these words from.' He said, 'Yes. Labeed ibn Rabee'ah and 'Adiyy ibn Hatim came and said, 'Ask permission for us to enter and meet the Ameer al-Mu'mineen,' and I said, 'By Allah you've got his name right, for he is the leader and we are the believers.' And from that day on, this name was used in all letters.' According to another report, 'Umar said, 'You are the believers and I am your leader,' so he gave this title to himself. Thus 'Umar ibn al-Khattab was the first one to be called Ameer al-Mu'mineen, and no one did that before him. If the researcher studies the words of the Companions (رضي الله عنهم), he will see that they were all agreed upon this title, so this title became well known throughout all the regions during his reign.

The 'Arabian Calendar', says F.A. Shamsi, was lunisolar, that that embolismic calendar the Muslims till 8 AH/630 CE and remained in vogue among the pagans officially till 8 AH/631 CE and that the dates of some events in the life of Prophet (ﷺ) as recorded in early Muslim scholars belong to that lunisolar calendar and not to the lunar calendar in use among the Muslims (i.e. the Hijrah calendar). But what precisely was the nature of that calendar we do not know any degree of certitude. The only competent early writer known to have treated of this subject was Abu'l-Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (362/973-ca. 443/1051). This Arabic calendar is not the same as the Hijri calendar.

Muharram is the month with which the Muslims begin their lunar Hijri Calendar. The Prophet (ﷺ) in his sermon on the occasion of his (ﷺ) last Hajj, has declared,

الزَّمَانُ قَدِ اسْتَدَارَ كَهَيْئَتِهِ يَوْمَ خَلَقَ السَّمَوَاتِ وَالأَرْضَ، السَّنَةُ اثْنَا عَشَرَ شَهْرًا، مِنْهَا أَرْبَعَةٌ حُرُمٌ، ثَلاَثَةٌ مُتَوَالِيَاتٌ ذُو الْقَعْدَةِ وَذُو الْحِجَّةِ وَالْمُحَرَّمُ، وَرَجَبُ مُضَرَ الَّذِي بَيْنَ جُمَادَى وَشَعْبَانَ

'The division of time has turned to its original form which was current when Allah created the Heavens and the Earths. The year is of twelve months, out of which four months are sacred: Three are in succession Dhul-Qa'da, Dhul-Hijja and Muharram, and (the fourth is) Rajab of (the tribe of) Mudar which comes between Jumadi-ath-Thaniyah and Sha'ban.' [Sahih Al-Bukhari]

The specific mention of these four months does not mean that any other month has no sanctity, because the month of Ramadan is admittedly the most sancti­fied month in the year. But these four months were specifically termed as sanctified months for the simple reason that their sanctity was accepted even by the pagans of Makkah. The purpose of the tradition was to enable pilgrims, merchants, and others to go to markets or places of worship and return home safely. The four months of the Islamic calendar during which war is considered forbidden except in response to aggression.

Before continuing with the month of Muharram and the following months, we will discuss the topic of 'War' in the next episode, bi idhnillah."

Cananga thereupon sang, 

Di sudut sana, banyak orang kehilangan

[Over there, many people depreived]

Sudut lainnya, bayi bertanya bimbang,

[Another here, babies asked uncertainly,

'Mama, kapan Ayah pulang?'

['Mom, when will be Dad come home?']

'Mama, sebab apa Perang?'

['Mom, what causes the War?']

Mayat-mayat bergeletakan, tak terkubur dengan layak

[Bodies were lying around, not properly buried]

Dan burung-burung bangkai menatap liar

[And the vultures stared wildly]

Dan burung-burung bangkai berdansa senang *)

[And the vultures dance happily]

Citations & References:

- Al-Hafiz Ibn Rajab al-Hanbali, rahimahullah, The Islamic Months: A Detailed Treatise on the Merits, Virtues and Practices for the Months of the Islamic Year, Translated by Mahomed Mahomedy, 1971, Dap Al-Kotob Al-Ilmiyah Beirut

- Dr. 'Ali Muhammad as-Sallabi, 'Umar Ibn Al-Khattab: His Life & Times, Volume One, translated by Nasiruddin Al-Khattab, 20019, International Islamic Publishing House (IIPH)

- F. A. Shamsi, Perceval's Reconstruction of The Pre-Islamic Arab Calendar, Islamic Studies, Vol. 37, No. 3 (Autumn 1998), pp. 353-369, International Islamic University Islamabad

*) "Puing" written by Virgiawan Listanto

[Episode 5]

[Episode 3]

Bahasa

Stories from Cananga Tree (3)

"A science teacher asked one of his students, 'What is the difference between electricity and lightning?'

'We don’t have to pay for lightning,' the student replied."

"Sixteenth-century French philosopher René Descartes famously coined the phrase ‘dubito ergo cogito; cogito ergo sum’ (‘I doubt, therefore I think; I think, therefore I am’). Descartes went through a mental process of doubting the existence of all things to prove the existence of them. Through his process of doubt, Descartes proved his existence in the world. To doubt something is a potent mental ability because we can doubt—we exist! But when it used to the extreme, skepticism is unproductive and produces uncritical thought," Cananga went on.

"A. R. Codling suggests that University is a crucial place to exercise and develop an inquisitive mind. A university is a higher educational learning institution that is granted degree-giving powers by the government. The word ‘university’ is derived from the Latin phrase universitas magistorum et scholarium (which means a ‘community of teachers and scholars’). In Europe, HE was established in the sixth century in Christian cathedral schools, where monks and nuns taught classes. The first universities in Europe were the University of Bologna (Italy, 1088), the University of Paris (France, 1150), and the University of Oxford (England, 1167). In England, after disputes between students and residents of Oxford in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge and later founded the University of Cambridge (1209); thus, Oxbridge was established.

The Academic approach is named after the first university founded by Plato. The primary means of instruction was the lecture, a one-sided affair in which professors verbally delivered elements of their expert knowledge to an entirely passive audience.

In modern Arabic, 'madrasah' or 'madrasa' [derives from the triconsonantal Semitic root د-ر-س D-R-S 'to learn, study', using the morphological form or template مفعل(ة); mafʻal(ah), meaning 'a place where something is done'. Thus, madrasah literally means 'a place where learning and studying take place' or 'place of study'] generically denotes any educational institution from preschool to high school, so every secular elementary, middle, or high school in a place like Cairo would be called a madrasa. The noun 'madrasa' can therefore also mean a modern school, college, or academy where lessons and lectures on various subjects are addressed to students.

In the early history of the Islamic period, teaching was generally carried out in mosques rather than in separate specialized institutions. Mosques were more than a place of worship as they were also utilized as an area to host community transactions of business. It was the center of most of a city's social and cultural life. Along with this came trades of information and teachings. As the mosque was a starting ground for religious discourse in the Islamic world, these madrasas became more common.

Although some major early mosques like the Great Mosque of Damascus or the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in Cairo had separate rooms that were devoted to teaching, this distinction between 'mosque' and 'madrasa' was not very present. Notably, the al-Qarawiyyin (Jāmiʻat al-Qarawīyīn), established in 859 in the city of Fes, present-day Morocco, is considered the oldest university in the world by some scholars, though the application of the term "university" to institutions of the medieval Muslim world is disputed. According to tradition, the al-Qarawiyyin mosque was founded by Faṭimah al-Fihri, the daughter of a wealthy merchant named Muḥammad al-Fihri. This was later followed by the Fatimid establishment of al-Azhar Mosque in 969–970 in Cairo, initially as a center to promote Isma'ili teachings, which later became a Sunni institution under Ayyubid rule (today's Al-Azhar University). By the 900s AD, the Madrasa is noted to have become a successful higher education system.

In the medieval Islamic world, an elementary school (for children or for those learning to read) was known as a 'kuttāb' or maktab, they appear to have been already widespread in the early Abbasid period (8th-9th centuries). Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a maktab school from the age of 6 and be taught primary education until they reach the age of 14. During which time, he wrote, they should be taught the Qur'an, Islamic metaphysics, Arabic, literature, Islamic ethics, and manual skills (which could refer to a variety of practical skills).

Ibn Sīnā refers to the secondary education stage of maktab schooling as a period of specialisation when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be allowed to choose and specialise in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, medicine, geometry, trade and commerce, craftsmanship, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future career.

The ijāzat al-tadrīs wa-al-iftāʼ ('licence to teach and issue legal opinions') in the medieval Islamic legal education system had its origins in the ninth century after the formation of the madhāhib (schools of jurisprudence). George Makdisi considers the ijāzah to be the origin of the European doctorate. The Arabic term ijāzat al-tadrīs was awarded to Islamic scholars who were qualified to teach. According to Makdisi, the Latin title licentia docendi, 'licence to teach', in the European university may have been a translation of Arabic, but the underlying concept was very different. A significant difference between the ijāzat al-tadrīs and the licentia docendi was that the former was awarded by the individual scholar-teacher, while the latter was awarded by the chief official of the university, who represented the collective faculty, rather than the individual scholar-teacher.

In different Muslim cultures, says Ebrahim Moosa, in villages and towns in South Asia, East Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe, and North America, young children attend religious instruction at madrasas in order to learn how to read the Qur’an in Arabic and receive basic instruction on matters of faith. They may attend on a daily basis or only on select days of the week. Some students might also devote time to the memorization of the Qur’an on a full-time or part-time basis parallel to their pursuit of secular education.

Taqi ‘Usmani, a prominent figure in Pakistan’s madrasa hierarchy and a former Shari'a court judge, suggests that the purpose of a madrasa is a noble one. Education, he declares, is 'to change people’s way of thinking,' and it cannot be reduced to merely a means of guaranteeing that graduates are gainfully employed. Few people disagree with him. One of the many noble goals of education is to strengthen one’s identity, internalize excellent human qualities,and realize one’s potential. 'These virtues,' says ‘Usmani, make 'each individual serve not only their own countries and communities but ... the whole of humanity.'

Madrasas were largely centred on the study of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). Figuratively, fiqh means knowledge about Islamic legal rulings from their sources. Fiqh is often described as the human understanding and practices of the sharia, that is human understanding of the divine Islamic law as revealed in the Quran and the Sunnah. Fiqh expands and develops Shariah through interpretation (ijtihad) of the Quran and Sunnah by Islamic jurists (ulama) and is implemented by the rulings (fatwa) of jurists on questions presented to them. Thus, whereas sharia is considered immutable and infallible by Muslims, fiqh is considered fallible and changeable.

Law, in general, is the cement of society, says Glanville Williams. Its study at university enables you to explore how and why this is so. A common misunderstanding is that the study of law involves little more than the rote learning of legal rules. Closer acquaintance will show that it is far more complex and challenging than that. Law is a popular profession and subject to study at university. It is a subject which both shapes and reflects societal rules, norms and values. Lawyers are said to be the ‘gatekeeper[s] to legal institutions’ and are required to have an ability to explain complex issues to clients succinctly (in both written and oral form), to problem solve and work well as a team. Codling says that a law degree is a great asset to have for any profession and a varied and interesting topic to study at university (its subjects ranging from legal history to criminal law or space law, and recently the topic of Law and Economics. Economics has mathematically precise theories (price theory and game theory) and empirically sound methods (statistics and econometrics) for analyzing the effects of the implicit prices that laws attach to behavior).

According to Cadling, it is important to think critically in the legal context. we exist because we can think. A thought is ‘everything that comes to mind, that 'goes through our heads'. At a basic level, we arrange or order our thoughts to protect us from danger (for example, knowing that fire is hot and will burn us) or to get what we need to survive (such as finding food and water). Some people imagine their thoughts are like clouds in the sky; some are heavy, some are light, some are threatening but they all keep moving and changing. Sometimes we bring our attention to our thoughts to quieten them (through the practices of mindfulness or meditation, for example). Other times, we want to use our thoughts to ‘figure out some situation, solve some problem, answer some questions, resolve some issue’. Your thinking controls every part of your life, but do you control your thinking?

The ‘critical’ part of thinking signifies an ‘evaluative component’. For some, thinking critically has a negative connotation: it requires a critique to be provided. However, thinking critically about law should be distinguished from providing a ‘critique’, which generally refers to disapproval. Rather, critical thought requires analysing positive and negative attributes (or weighing up the pros and cons) of something, and reasons as to why this is the case should also be provided. Critical thinking gives you the tools to use scepticism and doubt constructively so that you can analyse what is before you’. In other words, thinking critically is a constructive way to consider things at a deeper level by posing questions such as: Why? How? Where? And so what? Critical thinking requires concentration.

Is critical thinking about thinking like a ‘sophist’? ‘Sophistry’ is the use of clever but false arguments with the intent of deception. Like a game, the objective of sophistic thinking is to win. Sophistic thinkers should be distinguished from critical thinkers because the sophist uses low-level skills of rhetoric, or argumentation, by which they make unreasonable thinking look reasonable and reasonable thinking look unreasonable. This form of thinking is evident in the arguments of unethical lawyers and politicians who are more concerned with winning than with being fair and use emotionalism and trickery in an intellectually skilled way.

Is thinking critically about ‘independent’ thought? Whether thinking critically is a process of developing independent thought is an interesting question to consider. On the one hand, is that it is ‘an intellectually disciplined process of thought whereby you develop your own informed legal opinion or argument(s) on a particular issue’. Karl Popper states that ‘non-critical’ thinking is problematic because if we are uncritical, we shall always find what we want: we shall look from and find confirmations, and we shall look away from, and not see, whatever might be dangerous to our pet theories. Accordingly, non-critical thinking is daydreaming, non-directed, automatic thinking, rote recall of information, or the failure to consider evidence that might support a conclusion that you do not like.

Law is described as a ‘big’ (fundamental or essential) question because it defines the nature of law or a legal system. The question: what is ‘law’? has been contemplated by scholars and philosophers for centuries. The ‘laws’ of physics and mathematics differ distinctly from those governing the ‘law of nature’ (or natural law) or ‘social ordering’ (the societal system of institutions that regulate human behaviour).

H.L.A. Hart writes that few questions concerning human society have been asked with such persistence and answered by serious thinkers in so many diverse, strange, and even paradoxical ways as the question 'What is law?' Even if we confine our attention to the legal theory of the last 150 years and neglect classical and medieval speculation about the 'nature' of law, we shall find a situation not paralleled in any other subject systematically studied as a separate academic discipline. No vast literature is dedicated to answering the questions 'What is chemistry?' or 'What is medicine?', as it is to the question 'What is law?' A few lines on the opening page of an elementary textbook are all that the student of these sciences is asked to consider, and the answers he is given are of a very different kind from those tendered to the student of law. No one has thought it illuminating or important to insist that medicine is 'what doctors do about illnesses', or 'a prediction of what doctors will do', or to declare that what is ordinarily recognized as a characteristic, central part of chemistry, say the study of acids, is not really part of chemistry at all. Yet, in the case of law, things which at first sight look as strange as these have often been said, and not only said but urged with eloquence and passion, as if they were revelations of truths about law, long obscured by gross misrepresentations of its essential nature.

Hart added that it cannot seriously be disputed that the development of law, at all times and places, has in fact been profoundly influenced both by the conventional morality and ideals of particular social groups and also by forms of enlightened moral criticism urged by individuals, whose moral horizon has transcended the morality currently accepted. But it is possible to take this truth illicitly, as a warrant for a different proposition: namely that a legal system must exhibit some specific conformity with morality or justice, or must rest on a widely diffused conviction that there is a moral obligation to obey it.

Margaret Davies provides the following definition: 'Law regulates human behaviour, and the relationships between members of society. Beyond this, it may attempt to enshrine certain ideals, such as equality, freedom, and justice.'

Jurisprudence is basically ‘the theoretical or philosophical study of law’. As a lawyer, you should study jurisprudence as a simple matter of intellectual self-respect, James E. Penner and Emmanuel Melissaris write. The phrase is used interchangeably with other terms such as ‘legal philosophy’ and ‘legal theory’. However, ‘jurisprudence’ focuses on theoretical analyses of law, whereas ‘legal philosophy’ is concerned with providing a philosophical argument, and ‘legal theory’ is often used to denote theoretical enquiries about law.

Cultivating an inquisitive mind (one that asks lots of questions) whilst studying law is an essential element to attain any professional career, says Cadling. It is also essential that people can think critically, as every generation is faced with its own set of challenges, from killing a woolly mammoth to banning the nuclear bomb and stopping global warming. These challenges are essentially the same (they all threaten human existence), but the particular situations and faces differ. Some of today’s main challenges include a rise in media and political propaganda, awareness of fake news stories, and the legal challenges to come following Brexit. Due to such challenges, there is a constant need for us to think creatively and self-reflectively about our modern-day legal challenges: to think critically about law.

Thinking critically about this law is part of contemplation. In Islamic contemplation, the contemplation of Allah’s creation is one of the greatest forms of worship in Islam. It is not surprising, therefore, that many Qur’anic verses encourage this activity and do so using various methods to appeal to every temperament and spiritual state. The aim is to divert people away from their dulled senses, bad habits, and monotonous familiarity, and encourage them to witness the signs of their Rabb in the universe with insight and impressionable hearts. True Islamic contemplation can only spring from a heart that believes in Allah and a mind that submits to Him and His Exalted Attributes. The Qur’an attempts to soften human hearts in many ways. One of these is by mentioning the grace and favors of God. Contemplation of these can generate a feeling of compassionate mercy and love.

Contemplation of the creation of the heavens and the earth and all that is included in them is a practice that cannot be impeded by changes in time, place, or the nature of things. It is a free, unrestrained form of worship. It is also a cognitive and emotional process that enlivens the heart and enlightens perception as the mind ascends from contemplating the signs of Allah in the universe to their Creator and Rabb. This is the real meaning of contemplation. It should be noted here that any other form of contemplation of the beauty and splendor of the heavens and the earth would be considered as shirk if the contemplator would not be recognizing, let alone praising and thanking the Creator.

Concerning the liberation of contemplation from the limits of time and place, the Qur’an encourages the practice of contemplation of the beginning of creation. Allah says,

قُلْ سِيْرُوْا فِى الْاَرْضِ فَانْظُرُوْا كَيْفَ بَدَاَ الْخَلْقَ ثُمَّ اللّٰهُ يُنْشِئُ النَّشْاَةَ الْاٰخِرَةَ ۗاِنَّ اللّٰهَ عَلٰى كُلِّ شَيْءٍ قَدِيْرٌ

'Say, 'Travel throughout the land and see how He originated the creation, then Allah will bring it into being one more time. Surely Allah is Most Capable of everything.' [QS. Al-'Ankabut (29):20]

In addition to encouraging believers to contemplate the present, the Qur’an invites them to contemplate the destinies of extinct nations. Allah says,

اَوَلَمْ يَسِيْرُوْا فِى الْاَرْضِ فَيَنْظُرُوْا كَيْفَ كَانَ عَاقِبَةُ الَّذِيْنَ مِنْ قَبْلِهِمْۗ كَانُوْٓا اَشَدَّ مِنْهُمْ قُوَّةً وَّاَثَارُوا الْاَرْضَ وَعَمَرُوْهَآ اَكْثَرَ مِمَّا عَمَرُوْهَا وَجَاۤءَتْهُمْ رُسُلُهُمْ بِالْبَيِّنٰتِۗ فَمَا كَانَ اللّٰهُ لِيَظْلِمَهُمْ وَلٰكِنْ كَانُوْٓا اَنْفُسَهُمْ يَظْلِمُوْنَۗ

'Have they not traveled through the earth and observed how was the end of those before them? They were greater than them in power, and they plowed [or excavated] the earth and built it up more than they [i.e., the Makkans] have built it up, and their messengers came to them with clear evidences. And Allah would not ever have wronged them, but they were wronging themselves.' [QS. Ar-Rum (30):9]

While ordering the believers to contemplate this world, the Qur’an also calls for meditation on the hereafter. This is because contemplation limited to the transient world is nothing but an incomplete image of the universe and a distorted concept of the reality of human existence. Allah says,

كَذٰلِكَ يُبَيِّنُ اللّٰهُ لَكُمُ الْاٰيٰتِ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَتَفَكَّرُوْنَۙ فِى الدُّنْيَا وَالْاٰخِرَةِ ۗ

'... Thus Allah makes clear to you the verses [of revelation] that you might give thought to this world and the Hereafter ....' [QS. Al-Baqarah (2):219-220]

Therefore, the believer is ordered to contemplate Allah’s creation from the beginning until the Day of Judgment.

From an Islamic perspective, some factors affect the depth of contemplation, and we'll discuss them in the next episode, bi 'idhnillah."

Cananga then sang,

If you're going to San Francisco

Be sure to wear some flowers in your hair

If you're going to San Francisco

You're gonna meet some gentle people there *)

Citations & References:

- A. R. Codling, Thinking Critically About Law: A Student’s Guide, 2018, Routledge

- H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law, 1994, Clarendon Press

- Robert J. Beck (Ed.), Law and Disciplinarity: Thinking Beyond Borders, 2013, Palgrave

- Ebrahim Moosa, What Is a Madrasa?, 2015, Edinburg University Press

*) "San Francisco (Be Sure To Wear Flowers In Your Hair)" written by John Edmund Andrew Phillips

[Episode 4]

[Episode 2]

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