"Cangik was selling her merchandise on the street. This time, it was 'underwear.''Come on, sista! Get your unique underwear here!" she called out to a flashy girl walking by.'Please, sista, this underwear is special. It can be worn for up to 80 years and stretch to 190 years! Come on, sista, put on your underwear!' she urged, holding out a pair.'Nooo!' the girl snapped, glaring at Cangik before strutting away.Cangik shrugged and called after her, 'It's okay, sista, it's totally fine not to wear underwear. Just don't catch a cold!'""One of the key characteristics of a strong nation is Social Cohesion. Social cohesion can be compared to a family, where members support, trust, and care for each other. Despite differences and occasional conflicts, the bonds of love and mutual respect hold the family together, much like how social cohesion binds a nation. A cohesive society is like a tapestry, woven from many different threads and colours to create a unified and intricate design. Each thread adds to the beauty and strength of the tapestry, symbolizing how diversity and unity combine to form a strong, vibrant nation.Social cohesion is akin to a beehive, where each bee has a role and works collectively for the well-being of the hive. Cooperation, communication, and shared purpose ensure the hive’s survival and success, mirroring how a cohesive society operates. A cohesive society is like a well-tended garden where every plant, no matter how different, thrives in harmony. Regular care, mutual support, and a shared environment help the garden flourish, symbolizing how diverse communities can coexist and support one another," Seruni went on while looking at the Banyan Tree on Garuda's shield."Social cohesion refers to the strength of relationships and the sense of solidarity among members of a community or society. It involves the willingness of members to cooperate and work towards the well-being of the community. Social cohesion is like the foundation of a building. Without a solid foundation, even the most beautifully constructed structure can crumble. Similarly, a nation built on strong social bonds, trust, and shared values can withstand challenges and remain stable.There are some key components of Social Cohesion. Trust and reciprocity are fundamental components of social cohesion that contribute to the strength of relationships and cooperation within a community or society.Trust refers to the confidence and belief that individuals have in others' intentions, reliability, and competence. It involves a willingness to be vulnerable to others based on positive expectations of their behaviour. Trust is built on the belief that others will fulfil their commitments and obligations consistently. Trustworthy individuals and institutions adhere to ethical principles and values, acting fairly and honestly. Transparent communication fosters trust by ensuring clarity and reducing misunderstandings. Trust grows when behaviours and actions are consistent over time, demonstrating reliability.Reciprocity refers to the mutual exchange of benefits, favours, or actions between individuals or groups. It involves giving and receiving support, assistance, or cooperation with the expectation that similar actions will be returned in the future. Reciprocity involves a sense of mutual benefit where both parties contribute to each other's well-being or interests. Reciprocal actions are often guided by social norms that promote fairness, cooperation, and mutual aid. Reciprocity helps build and strengthen relationships by fostering trust and cooperation.Mutual trust and reciprocity reduce misunderstandings and conflicts by promoting open communication and understanding between individuals and groups. Trust and reciprocity increase social capital, which facilitates collective action and community resilience. Social capital refers to the networks of relationships and trust within a community.Trust in institutions, such as government agencies or community organizations, is crucial for their effectiveness and legitimacy. Reciprocal relationships between citizens and institutions strengthen governance and service delivery. Local organizations, such as neighbourhood associations or volunteer groups, rely on trust and reciprocity among members to achieve community goals, such as organizing events or providing support to residents in need. In business, trust between partners, suppliers, and customers is essential for successful transactions and long-term relationships. Reciprocal exchanges of value contribute to business sustainability and growth.Factors such as past betrayals, conflicting interests, or misinformation can erode trust and hinder reciprocal relationships. Disparities in power, wealth, or access to resources can undermine reciprocity, leading to unequal exchanges or exploitation. Cultural norms and values may influence perceptions of trust and reciprocity, affecting interactions within diverse communities or societies.Francis Fukuyama underscores the critical role of trust in creating prosperous and cohesive societies. Trust fosters cooperation, reduces transaction costs, and enables the formation of larger and more effective organizations. High-trust societies tend to exhibit stronger social cohesion, economic performance, and institutional effectiveness. Building and maintaining trust through cultural norms, effective institutions, and inclusive policies is essential for fostering social cohesion and achieving sustainable prosperity.Francis Fukuyama delves into the critical role of social virtues, particularly trust, in fostering economic prosperity and social cohesion. He explores how different levels of social trust and the presence of social capital can impact economic performance, institutional effectiveness, and societal harmony. Fukuyama argues that trust is the cornerstone of social capital, which is essential for the smooth functioning of societies and economies. Trust reduces transaction costs, facilitates cooperation, and enables the formation of larger, more complex organizations. He emphasizes that interpersonal trust, the trust that individuals have in each other, is crucial for social cohesion. High levels of interpersonal trust lead to stronger community bonds and a greater willingness to work together for common goals.In high-trust societies, there is a greater sense of social cohesion as people are more inclined to collaborate, share information, and engage in collective action. This cohesion enhances societal stability and resilience. High-trust societies, such as Japan, Germany, and the United States, tend to have more robust economies. These societies can create larger, more flexible economic organizations because trust extends beyond family and close friends to a broader network.Fukuyama highlights the significant influence of cultural values and social norms on the level of trust within a society. Cultures that emphasize social virtues such as honesty, reciprocity, and community responsibility tend to foster higher levels of trust and social cohesion.Social norms that promote trustworthiness and cooperation contribute to a cohesive society. When individuals internalize these norms, they are more likely to engage in behaviours that strengthen social bonds and mutual support.Societies with high institutional trust can implement policies and reforms more effectively, as people are more likely to support and adhere to institutional decisions. Trust in institutions, such as the government, legal system, and educational institutions, is vital for social cohesion. Effective, transparent, and accountable institutions enhance public trust and cooperation.Fukuyama discusses how economic and social policies can influence trust and social cohesion. Policies that promote economic equality, social mobility, and access to opportunities can enhance trust and cohesion. While redistribution and welfare policies can support social cohesion by reducing inequalities, they must be designed in a way that promotes self-reliance and community engagement rather than dependency.Fukuyama addresses the challenges posed by globalization, which can undermine social cohesion by increasing economic inequality and eroding traditional social structures. While diversity can enrich societies, it also presents challenges for social cohesion. Fukuyama emphasizes the need for inclusive policies and practices that foster trust and cooperation among diverse groups.Policies and practices that build and maintain trust are essential for social cohesion. This includes promoting transparency, accountability, and integrity in both public and private institutions. Investing in social capital through community-building initiatives, education, and inclusive policies can strengthen social cohesion. Encouraging civic engagement and participation fosters a sense of belonging and mutual support.Economic policies should aim to reduce inequalities while promoting growth and innovation. Balancing economic efficiency with social equity helps maintain social cohesion. Effective and inclusive governance that represents the interests of all community members enhances trust and social cohesion. Ensuring that diverse voices are heard and considered is crucial for societal harmony.Partha Dasgupta and Ismail Serageldin (et al) examine comprehensively social capital from various disciplinary angles. They bring together contributions from economists, sociologists, political scientists, and other scholars to explore the concept of social capital and its implications for development and social cohesion. They define broadly Social Capital as the networks, norms, and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit. It encompasses both the social networks that connect people and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from these networks.Measuring social capital is complex due to its intangible nature. High levels of social capital are associated with better economic performance, healthier populations, and more stable and effective governance. Social capital plays a crucial role in economic performance by reducing transaction costs, facilitating information flow, and enabling collective action. Trust and networks can lead to more efficient markets and better-functioning institutions. Communities with strong social capital can mobilize resources more effectively and are more resilient to economic shocks.Policies that strengthen social networks, promote civic engagement, and build trust can enhance social capital and lead to better social and economic outcomes. Programs that support community development and local governance can enhance social capital. Empowering communities to take collective action and participate in decision-making processes fosters a sense of ownership and mutual support.They suggest that Trust is a fundamental component of social capital. They explore how trust between individuals (interpersonal trust) and trust in institutions (institutional trust) contribute to social cohesion and collective well-being. Strategies for building trust include fostering inclusive institutions, promoting transparency and accountability, and encouraging social interactions across diverse groups.High bonding social capital within a group can sometimes lead to exclusion or hostility towards outsiders. A balance between bonding, bridging, and linking social capital is necessary to maximize the positive effects and minimize negative outcomes. Bridging and linking social capital are particularly important for fostering inclusivity and broader social cohesion.The effectiveness and nature of social capital vary across different cultural and social contexts. What works in one community or country may not work in another, highlighting the need for context-specific approaches to building and leveraging social capital. Cultural norms and values play a significant role in shaping social capital. Understanding the cultural context is crucial for effectively promoting and utilizing social capital in development efforts.Encouraging participation in community activities, local governance, and volunteerism can build social networks and foster trust. Civic engagement initiatives should be inclusive and aim to bring together diverse groups. Building transparent, accountable, and responsive institutions enhances institutional trust. Policies that promote good governance, reduce corruption and ensure equitable access to services are essential for fostering social capital.Investing in community development projects that encourage collective action and local problem-solving can strengthen social capital. Empowering communities through participatory approaches ensures that development is inclusive and sustainable. Facilitating interactions and cooperation between different groups (bridging social capital) and between communities and institutions (linking social capital) can enhance social cohesion and integration. Programs that promote intercultural dialogue and cooperation are beneficial. Educational initiatives that teach values of trust, cooperation, and civic responsibility can build social capital from a young age. Cultural programs that celebrate diversity and promote mutual understanding also contribute to social cohesion.Trust and reciprocity are essential components of social cohesion, fostering cooperation, reducing conflict, and enhancing community resilience. By promoting mutual trust and reciprocal relationships, societies can build strong social capital, support effective governance, and improve overall well-being. Investing in trust-building efforts and ensuring fairness in reciprocal exchanges are crucial for maintaining cohesive and inclusive communities.Social Networks is one of the key components of Social Cohesion. Social networks refer to the relationships and connections that individuals have with others within a community or society. These networks can be formal or informal and play a crucial role in shaping social interactions, norms, and collective behaviours. Social networks consist of personal relationships, affiliations, and associations that individuals maintain with family members, friends, colleagues, neighbours, and community members. These connections form the basis for communication, support, and interaction within society. Social networks vary in the strength of ties between individuals. Strong ties involve close relationships with high levels of trust and reciprocity, while weak ties connect individuals across different social groups or networks.There some types of Social Networks. Personal Networks, include close friends, family members, and trusted acquaintances who provide emotional support and companionship. Professional Networks, consist of colleagues, mentors, and professional contacts who offer career advice, opportunities, and collaboration. Community Networks, involve neighbors, local organizations, and community groups that contribute to civic engagement, mutual aid, and collective action.Fukuyama also explores how societies adapt to and recover from challenging social and moral disruptions. He emphasizes the importance of innate human sociality, shared norms and values, resilient institutions, and social capital in reconstituting social order and maintaining social cohesion. By fostering community engagement, strengthening institutions, promoting shared values, addressing economic inequality, and adapting to technological changes, societies can rebuild social cohesion and thrive in the face of ongoing challenges.He discusses how rapid technological advances and economic shifts, particularly those associated with the information age, have disrupted traditional social structures and norms. These disruptions challenge existing forms of social cohesion. The cultural changes of the 1960s and 1970s, including the sexual revolution, the rise of individualism, and the decline of traditional authority, have also contributed to a weakening of social cohesion.Despite the disruptions, Fukuyama argues that human beings have an innate tendency towards sociality. This means that people naturally seek to form social bonds and create cohesive communities. He posits that societies can adapt and reconstitute social order based on this innate sociality, even after periods of significant disruption.Fukuyama suggests that the reconstitution of social order involves the re-establishment of these norms, which are essential for cohesive social interactions and trust. Social cohesion is deeply linked to shared moral norms and values. As societies experience disruptions, there is a period of moral confusion, but over time, new norms and values can emerge to restore social cohesion.Institutions play a critical role in maintaining and restoring social cohesion. Resilient institutions can adapt to changes and help societies navigate through disruptions by providing stability and reinforcing social norms. Trust in institutions is crucial for social cohesion. During periods of disruption, rebuilding trust in institutions is necessary for re-establishing social order.Fukuyama discusses the decline in social capital, such as decreased community engagement and weakening of social networks, as a significant factor in the disruption of social cohesion. He emphasizes the importance of rebuilding social capital through community engagement, civic participation, and the strengthening of social networks to restore social cohesion. He argues for inclusive economic policies that ensure equitable access to opportunities and resources as a means to strengthen social cohesion. Economic inequality can exacerbate social disruption and weaken social cohesion. Addressing inequality through policies that promote economic fairness and social mobility is essential for restoring cohesion.Societies need to find a balance between maintaining traditional social structures and adapting to modern challenges. This balance is crucial for sustaining social cohesion in the face of ongoing change. Innovative approaches to social organization, governance, and community building are necessary to address the new realities of the modern world and restore social cohesion. Encouraging community involvement and participation in civic activities can help rebuild social capital and strengthen social cohesion. Programs that promote volunteerism, local initiatives, and community-based projects are essential. Building resilient and trustworthy institutions is critical for maintaining social cohesion. This involves ensuring transparency, accountability, and responsiveness to the needs of the community. Societies must work towards re-establishing shared moral norms and values that promote trust, cooperation, and mutual support. Education systems and public discourse play a key role in this process.Implementing policies that reduce economic disparities and promote social mobility can enhance social cohesion. This includes access to quality education, healthcare, and equitable economic opportunities. Embracing technological advancements while mitigating their disruptive impacts on social structures is necessary. Policies that support workers, promote digital literacy, and encourage inclusive innovation can help achieve this balance.Social networks serve as channels for sharing information, ideas, and cultural norms. They also influence individual beliefs, behaviours, and decision-making processes. Information flows through networks can impact social cohesion by fostering consensus, shaping attitudes, and mobilizing collective action.Social networks contribute to social capital, which refers to the resources, trust, and reciprocity embedded within relationships and networks. High levels of social capital strengthen community resilience, facilitate cooperation, and support effective governance.Social networks provide emotional, instrumental, and informational support to individuals during times of need or crisis. Strong support systems enhance well-being and resilience within communities. Participation in social networks encourages civic engagement, volunteerism, and collective activities that promote community cohesion and solidarity. Active involvement in community networks fosters a sense of belonging and shared identity among residents.Social networks facilitate the transmission of cultural values, traditions, and norms across generations. They preserve cultural heritage and promote cultural diversity within society. Networks serve as platforms for conflict resolution, mediation, and reconciliation processes. They enable dialogue, negotiation, and consensus-building among conflicting parties.Social media platforms and online forums connect individuals globally, fostering virtual communities based on shared interests, identities, or causes. These networks facilitate information sharing, activism, and support networks across geographical boundaries.Local neighbourhood associations bring residents together to address common issues, organize events, and promote community cohesion. These networks strengthen social ties, enhance neighbourhood safety, and improve the quality of life for residents.Fragmentation or isolation within social networks can weaken community cohesion, reduce social capital, and hinder collective action. Socioeconomic disparities, cultural divides, or geographic isolation may contribute to social fragmentation.Unequal access to digital technologies and internet connectivity limits participation in online social networks, exacerbating social inequalities. Bridging the digital divide is essential for promoting inclusive social networks and ensuring equitable access to information and resources.Promoting community activities, events, and gatherings strengthens interpersonal connections and fosters new social networks. Creating inclusive spaces and opportunities for interaction encourages diverse participation and collaboration. Supporting networking initiatives, mentorship programs, and collaborative projects enhances professional networks and career development opportunities. Building strong professional networks contributes to economic growth, innovation, and knowledge sharing. Implementing policies that support social cohesion, cultural diversity, and inclusive community development encourages the formation of resilient social networks. Investing in social infrastructure, public spaces, and community resources strengthens social ties and enhances overall well-being.Robert D. Putnam examines the decline of social capital in the United States over the latter half of the 20th century and its implications for social cohesion. Putnam argues that social networks create bonds of trust and reciprocity that are essential for a well-functioning society. The decline in participation in community organisations, clubs, and social groups has led to a weakening of social cohesion. Social networks that once connected individuals and promoted civic engagement have diminished. The erosion of social networks and social capital has broad implications for societal well-being, including impacts on public health, economic prosperity, and democratic governance.Putnam emphasizes the need to rebuild social networks through community engagement, volunteerism, and policies that promote social interaction and trust.Christakis and Fowler investigate how social networks influence various aspects of human behaviour, including health, emotions, and decision-making. They argue that the structure and dynamics of social networks have a profound impact on individual and collective outcomes. They explain how behaviours and emotions can spread through social networks, highlighting the concept of 'three degrees of influence,' which suggests that effects can ripple through friends, friends of friends, and even friends of friends of friends.They delve into how social networks form and evolve, emphasizing the dynamics that influence the structure and behaviour of these networks. They identify key factors such as homophily, transitivity, and centrality that shape social networks. Homophily is the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with similar others. This similarity can be based on a variety of attributes, including demographics (age, gender, race), social status, interests, beliefs, or behaviours. Homophily plays a crucial role in the formation of social networks. People tend to form connections with others who are like them, leading to clusters or groups of similar individuals within a larger network. These similarities can reinforce existing behaviours and attitudes, as individuals are more likely to share and validate each other’s perspectives. While homophily strengthens bonds within groups, it can also lead to segmentation or fragmentation within the larger network, potentially creating echo chambers or cliques where diverse viewpoints are less likely to be encountered.Transitivity refers to the tendency for friends of friends to become friends. It describes the likelihood that if person A is friends with person B, and person B is friends with person C, then person A and person C are likely to become friends as well. Transitivity leads to the formation of closed triads (three-person groups where each member is connected to the other two), strengthening the cohesiveness and stability of the network. High transitivity increases the density of the network, meaning there are more interconnections among members. This can enhance the flow of information and resources within the network. By creating tightly knit groups, transitivity contributes to social cohesion and mutual support, as members of a network are interconnected through multiple pathways.Centrality refers to the importance or influence of a node (individual) within a network. Central nodes are those with many connections or those that bridge different parts of the network. Individuals with a high degree of centrality are well-connected and can influence many others directly. Individuals with high betweenness centrality act as bridges or brokers, connecting different parts of the network and facilitating the flow of information. Individuals with high closeness centrality can quickly reach and influence others.Transitivity refers to the tendency for friends of friends to become friends. It describes the likelihood that if person A is friends with person B, and person B is friends with person C, then person A and person C are likely to become friends as well. Transitivity leads to the formation of closed triads (three-person groups where each member is connected to the other two), strengthening the cohesiveness and stability of the network. High transitivity increases the density of the network, meaning there are more interconnections among members. This can enhance the flow of information and resources within the network. By creating tightly knit groups, transitivity contributes to social cohesion and mutual support, as members of a network are interconnected through multiple pathways.Centrality refers to the importance or influence of a node (individual) within a network. Central nodes are those with many connections or those that bridge different parts of the network. The number of direct connections an individual has. Individuals with a high degree of centrality are well-connected and can influence many others directly. The extent to which an individual lies on the shortest path between other nodes. Individuals with high betweenness centrality act as bridges or brokers, connecting different parts of the network and facilitating the flow of information. The average distance from an individual to all other nodes in the network. Individuals with high closeness centrality can quickly reach and influence others.Social networks evolve as new members join, existing members leave, and connections are formed or dissolved. This dynamic process is influenced by homophily, transitivity, and the evolving centrality of nodes. Social networks are subject to feedback mechanisms where the structure of the network influences individual behaviour, which in turn affects the network’s evolution. For example, individuals may become more central as they gain influence, further attracting new connections.The broader cultural and societal context influences the formation and evolution of social networks. Norms, values, and external events can shape how individuals connect and interact. Technological changes, especially in communication, have transformed the way social networks evolve. Social media platforms, for instance, enable the formation of large-scale, diverse networks that can evolve rapidly.Social networks promote social cohesion by fostering relationships, supporting community engagement, and transmitting cultural values. Strong social networks contribute to social capital, resilience, and collective action within societies, promoting inclusive development and enhancing the quality of life for individuals and communities alike. Investing in forming and maintaining diverse and interconnected social networks is essential for building cohesive and resilient societies.Shared Values and Norms is also one of the key components of Social Cohesion. Shared values and norms refer to the common beliefs, principles, and standards of behavior that are widely accepted and practised within a community or society. These shared understandings form the basis for social interactions, cooperation, and collective identity. Shared values encompass fundamental beliefs, ethical principles, and moral standards that guide individual and collective behaviours. They reflect cultural, religious, philosophical, or ideological foundations that shape societal norms. Norms are informal rules or expectations that govern appropriate behaviour, interactions, and roles within a community. They define what is considered acceptable, permissible, or taboo in various social contexts.Shared values and norms contribute to cultural identity by reinforcing group solidarity, heritage, and traditions. They promote a sense of belonging and common purpose among community members. Shared values provide an ethical framework for decision-making, guiding individuals and institutions in ethical dilemmas and moral judgments. They promote integrity, fairness, and accountability in personal and collective actions.Shared values and norms foster a sense of unity, cohesion, and mutual respect among diverse individuals and groups within society. They strengthen social bonds and encourage collaboration towards common goals. Common values and norms facilitate effective communication, mutual understanding, and conflict resolution among community members. They reduce misunderstandings and promote empathy and tolerance. Shared values contribute to the formation of collective identity and group identity, reinforcing a sense of belonging and loyalty to the community or nation. They define cultural identity and heritage, preserving traditions and cultural practices. Consensus on shared values and norms promotes social stability by providing a framework for social order, cooperation, and regulation of behaviour. They reduce social tensions and promote social cohesion in times of change or uncertainty.In democratic societies, shared values include respect for human rights, rule of law, and civic responsibility. Norms of civic engagement, such as voting, volunteering, and participating in community activities, promote democratic participation and social cohesion. Professional ethics and codes of conduct establish shared norms among professionals, ensuring integrity, fairness, and accountability in their respective fields. Ethical guidelines promote trust and professionalism within professions such as medicine, law, and business.Cultural diversity within societies may lead to differing values, norms, and interpretations of acceptable behaviour. Balancing cultural pluralism with shared societal values requires dialogue, tolerance, and respect for cultural differences. Cultural diversity within societies may lead to differing values, norms, and interpretations of acceptable behaviour. Balancing cultural pluralism with shared societal values requires dialogue, tolerance, and respect for cultural differences.Promoting education on shared values, civic responsibilities, and cultural diversity fosters understanding and respect among individuals and communities. Schools, universities, and community organizations play a crucial role in transmitting and reinforcing shared values. Encouraging open dialogue, public discourse, and respectful debate on societal values and norms promotes consensus-building and mutual understanding. Engaging diverse voices in policymaking and decision-making processes strengthens democratic governance and social cohesion.Ethical leadership and role modelling by institutions, community leaders, and public figures reinforce shared values and ethical standards. Leaders who embody integrity, fairness, and inclusivity inspire trust and promote collective commitment to shared goals.Jonathan Haidt delves deeply into how shared values and moral foundations contribute to social cohesion. Jonathan Haidt presents his Moral Foundations Theory, which identifies several core moral values or foundations that are shared across cultures but prioritized differently among individuals and groups. Haidt’s Moral Foundations Theory posits that several core moral foundations shape human morality across cultures. These foundations include Care/harm: Concern for the well-being of others, and avoidance of harm; Fairness/cheating: Concern for justice, reciprocity, and fairness; Loyalty/betrayal: Allegiance to one's group, family, or community, and aversion to betrayal; Authority/subversion: Respect for authority, hierarchy, and tradition, versus resistance to these structures; Sanctity/degradation: Reverence for the sacred or pure, and disgust towards the profane or impure; Liberty/oppression: Valuing liberty and autonomy, and opposing coercion and domination.Individuals and groups prioritize these moral foundations differently. For example, political conservatives tend to emphasize loyalty, authority, and sanctity more than liberals, who often prioritize care, fairness, and liberty. These differing emphases lead to contrasting moral intuitions and judgments about social issues.Political ideologies and affiliations often align with specific moral foundations. Conservatives may view policies through the lens of loyalty to country, respect for authority, and preservation of traditional values, while liberals may prioritize fairness, care for the vulnerable, and liberty from oppression. When individuals perceive that their core moral foundations are under threat, they become more polarized. For instance, debates over immigration may evoke concerns about loyalty to the nation (for conservatives) or fairness and care for immigrants (for liberals), leading to entrenched positions and increased polarization.In today's media and social media environments, people often surround themselves with like-minded individuals and information that reinforces their moral intuitions. This creates echo chambers where differing moral perspectives are seldom encountered, reinforcing polarization. Moral foundations contribute to the formation of group identities. Individuals align with groups that share their moral values, leading to ingroup solidarity and outgroup hostility. This phenomenon can intensify polarization as individuals perceive those outside their moral community as morally suspect or even immoral. Political leaders and media often frame issues in ways that appeal to specific moral foundations of their base. This framing can heighten emotional responses and further deepen divisions between groups with differing moral priorities.By understanding how differences in moral foundations shape political and social attitudes, Haidt provides insights into the mechanisms driving polarization. Recognizing and addressing these differences can be crucial for promoting dialogue, mutual understanding, and cooperation across ideological divides. Haidt underscores the complex interplay between moral psychology, cultural values, and political behaviour, offering pathways towards bridging divides in increasingly polarized societies.Shared values and norms are essential components of social cohesion, providing a common framework for unity, communication, and ethical behaviour within societies. They promote cultural identity, social stability, and collective resilience by fostering mutual respect, understanding, and cooperation among diverse individuals and groups. Strengthening consensus on shared values through education, dialogue, and ethical leadership enhances societal well-being and promotes inclusive development.One of the next key components of Social Cohesion is Inclusion and Equity. Inclusion and equity refer to principles and practices aimed at ensuring fair treatment, equal opportunities, and participation for all individuals within a community or society. These principles focus on addressing disparities, promoting diversity, and fostering a sense of belonging among diverse groups. Inclusion and equity prioritize providing equal access to resources, opportunities, and services regardless of individuals' backgrounds, characteristics, or circumstances. They aim to eliminate barriers that hinder participation and advancement based on factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, disability, socioeconomic status, or sexual orientation. Embracing diversity involves recognizing and valuing differences in perspectives, experiences, and identities within society. Equity ensures that diverse individuals and groups have representation, voice, and influence in decision-making processes and community affairs.Equity encompasses principles of social justice, fairness, and impartiality in addressing systemic inequalities, discrimination, and marginalization. It seeks to redress historical and structural disadvantages to achieve inclusive and sustainable development.Inclusion involves creating environments, policies, and practices that are accessible and accommodating to diverse needs and preferences. It ensures that individuals with disabilities, for example, have equal opportunities to participate fully in social, economic, and cultural activities.Inclusion and equity foster a sense of unity, mutual respect, and solidarity among individuals and groups with different backgrounds and identities. They strengthen social bonds and reduce divisions by promoting understanding, empathy, and shared values. Inclusive practices and equitable policies build social capital by engaging diverse perspectives, talents, and contributions within communities. They cultivate trust, collaboration, and collective action, leading to stronger community resilience and cohesion. Addressing disparities through inclusive policies and equitable opportunities helps reduce social inequalities and promote upward mobility. It improves economic outcomes, health outcomes, and overall well-being for marginalized or underserved populations. Inclusive environments encourage innovation, creativity, and problem-solving by leveraging diverse perspectives and experiences. Equity in access to education, employment, and resources cultivates talent and fosters economic growth and innovation.Affirmative action initiatives promote inclusion and equity by providing opportunities and removing barriers for historically marginalized groups in education, employment, and public services. These policies aim to achieve diversity and representation in institutions and workplaces. Universal design principles ensure that environments, products, and services are accessible to all individuals, including those with disabilities. It promotes inclusivity by accommodating diverse needs and preferences without the need for special adaptations or modifications.Heather McGhee examines how racial inequities and the lack of inclusion harm societal cohesion and economic prosperity, offering insights into fostering greater equity for societal benefit. Discriminatory practices deny opportunities to individuals based on race, ethnicity, or other factors, preventing them from fully contributing to economic growth and innovation. Racial discrimination contributes to wage gaps and disparities in income, limiting overall economic prosperity as marginalized groups struggle to achieve economic security. Policies rooted in racism and exclusion perpetuate divisions within society, fostering mistrust and animosity between different racial and ethnic groups. Physical and social segregation based on race and ethnicity reinforce inequalities and create barriers to social cohesion, reducing opportunities for cross-cultural understanding and collaboration.Racism and exclusion weaken democratic institutions by disenfranchising marginalized communities and skewing political representation and decision-making processes. Persistent inequalities and injustices fuel social unrest and protests, highlighting tensions and undermining the stability necessary for cohesive societies.Systemic racism perpetuates cycles of poverty and exclusion across generations, limiting upward mobility and perpetuating social inequalities. Racial disparities in access to healthcare and environmental justice exacerbate health outcomes, impacting overall societal well-being and productivity. By excluding talented individuals and groups from full participation in society and the economy, systemic racism and exclusionary practices limit collective potential and innovation that could benefit society as a whole.McGhee’s analysis underscores that addressing systemic racism and promoting inclusion isn't just a matter of fairness; it's essential for fostering social cohesion, enhancing economic prosperity, and strengthening democratic institutions. By dismantling barriers and promoting equity, societies can unlock the full potential of all individuals and build a more unified and resilient future.Persistent systemic discrimination, biases, and prejudices hinder efforts to achieve true inclusion and equity. Overcoming ingrained social norms and structural barriers requires sustained advocacy, policy reforms, and cultural change. Limited resources and competing priorities may pose challenges to equitable resource allocation and access to opportunities, particularly in resource-constrained settings. Prioritizing equity in budgetary decisions and policy planning is essential for achieving inclusive development.Enacting and enforcing policies and legislation that promote equal rights, non-discrimination, and inclusive practices across sectors and institutions are important policy in promoting Inclusion and Equity, including implementing affirmative action measures and diversity initiatives to ensure representation and equitable opportunities. Besides, promoting education on diversity, equity, and inclusion to foster understanding, empathy, and cultural competence among individuals and communities is also challenging. Raising awareness of unconscious biases and promoting inclusive language and behaviours in interpersonal interactions; engaging stakeholders, including marginalized groups, in decision-making processes, community development initiatives, and advocacy efforts; and building partnerships and coalitions to address systemic inequalities and promote collective action for social change are some policies to promote Inclusion and Equity.Inclusion and equity are fundamental principles for promoting social cohesion, unity, and justice within societies. They ensure that all individuals have equal opportunities to participate, contribute, and benefit from collective progress. By addressing disparities, fostering diversity, and promoting fairness, inclusive and equitable practices strengthen social bonds, enhance community resilience, and support sustainable development for all members of society. Investing in inclusive policies, education, and community engagement is essential for building cohesive and thriving communities that celebrate diversity and uphold shared values of justice and equity.The last key component of Social Cohesion is Participation and Engagement. Participation and engagement refer to the active involvement, contribution, and interaction of individuals and groups within the community or societal activities, decision-making processes, and collective endeavours. These components are essential for fostering inclusive governance, civic responsibility, and community cohesion. Participation involves individuals and groups actively contributing their ideas, perspectives, and efforts to community activities, projects, or decision-making processes. It empowers citizens to shape their environment, advocate for their interests, and collaborate towards common goals.Engagement encompasses civic responsibility, including voting in elections, volunteering for community service, and participating in public forums or civic organizations. It promotes a sense of belonging, ownership, and commitment to the welfare and development of the community. Participation in democratic processes, such as public consultations, town hall meetings, and advocacy campaigns, strengthens democratic governance and accountability. It ensures that diverse voices are heard, interests are represented, and decisions reflect community needs and aspirations. Engagement fosters social connections, trust, and solidarity among individuals and groups within communities. It builds social capital by promoting collaboration, mutual support, and collective action towards shared objectives.Participation empowers individuals to actively contribute to community development, decision-making, and problem-solving. It enhances agency, self-efficacy, and leadership skills among participants, fostering a sense of empowerment and ownership. Engagement in democratic processes promotes transparency, accountability, and responsiveness in governance. It reinforces democratic values such as freedom of expression, pluralism, and respect for human rights, contributing to political stability and legitimacy. Participatory activities build social networks and relationships based on trust, reciprocity, and shared interests. They reduce social isolation, strengthen community resilience, and promote social cohesion by bridging divides and fostering inclusivity. Engagement in collaborative initiatives and collective problem-solving encourages innovation, creativity, and diverse perspectives. It generates new ideas, solutions, and approaches to addressing community challenges and enhancing quality of life.Residents participate in neighbourhood planning meetings, workshops, or committees to provide input on urban development projects, infrastructure improvements, or environmental initiatives. Their engagement ensures that local priorities and concerns are integrated into planning decisions and policies. Individuals volunteer for community service projects, charitable organizations, or local events to contribute their time, skills, and resources towards community improvement. Volunteer engagement strengthens social bonds, promotes civic pride, and addresses community needs through collective action.Socioeconomic disparities, language barriers, digital divides, or geographic isolation may limit access to information, resources, or opportunities for participation. Overcoming barriers requires inclusive outreach efforts, accessibility accommodations, and tailored engagement strategies. Mistrust in institutions, political apathy, or disillusionment with participatory processes may discourage individuals from actively engaging in civic activities or governance. Building trust, promoting transparency, and demonstrating tangible outcomes are essential for fostering meaningful participation.Steps for promoting Participation and Engagement include providing accessible platforms, information, and resources for participation, such as online forums, community centres, or outreach campaigns;ensuring inclusivity by accommodating diverse needs, preferences, and communication styles in engagement efforts; educating and raising awareness about the importance of civic engagement, rights, and responsibilities among individuals, schools, and community organizations; promoting civic education programs, leadership development initiatives, and youth engagement activities to cultivate future civic leaders; adopting collaborative governance approaches that involve stakeholders in decision-making, policy development, and implementation processes; building partnerships, coalitions, and networks to leverage collective expertise, resources, and support for sustainable community development.Ezra Klein examines the role of political participation and engagement in shaping social dynamics, with a focus on the effects of polarization on social cohesion. The proliferation of partisan media outlets and social media platforms creates echo chambers where individuals consume news and information that reinforce their existing political beliefs. This constant reinforcement strengthens political identities and makes them more salient in daily life. People tend to select media sources that align with their political views, further entrenching their political identities. This selective exposure to information polarizes opinions and heightens the importance of political identity.Over the past few decades, political parties in the United States have become more ideologically homogeneous. This sorting means that party affiliation is increasingly aligned with a specific set of beliefs and values, making political identity a more comprehensive and significant part of individuals' self-conception. The growing divide between political parties fosters an "us vs. them" mentality, where individuals strongly identify with their political in-group and view the opposing party as fundamentally different or even threatening. This mentality intensifies the importance of political identity in social interactions.Political identities intersect with other aspects of identity, such as race, religion, and gender. This intersectionality means that political affiliation can become a proxy for these other identities, further embedding political identity in personal and social life. Political issues are increasingly framed in moral terms, leading individuals to see their political beliefs as reflections of their core values and moral convictions. This moralization strengthens the connection between political identity and self-conception.People tend to associate with others who share similar political beliefs, a phenomenon known as homophily. Social networks, both online and offline, often consist of like-minded individuals, reinforcing political identities through social interactions and group norms. Within these networks, there is social pressure to conform to the dominant political views. This pressure can lead to stronger identification with political beliefs and increased polarization as individuals seek to align with their in-group. Higher levels of political engagement and activism, often driven by social media, make political identity a more prominent part of individuals' lives. Participation in protests, campaigns, and online discussions reinforces the centrality of political identity. Engaging in political activities provides a sense of purpose and belonging, affirming individuals' political identities and integrating them into their overall self-conception. Political identities shape social circles, influencing friendships, romantic relationships, and family dynamics. Differences in political beliefs can lead to social fragmentation, with individuals increasingly socializing only with those who share their political views. Political identities can both unite and divide. Within political in-groups, they foster cohesion and solidarity. However, between opposing groups, they can lead to conflict, mistrust, and social division.Ezra Klein’s analysis highlights the profound impact that political identities have on self-conception and social interactions. By understanding these dynamics, we can better comprehend the challenges of polarization and the importance of fostering more inclusive and constructive political engagement to enhance social cohesion.Participation and engagement are integral to promoting social cohesion, democratic governance, and community resilience. By empowering individuals and groups to actively contribute, collaborate, and advocate for their interests, participation fosters inclusive development, strengthens social bonds, and builds collective capacity to address shared challenges. Investing in inclusive engagement strategies, civic education, and collaborative governance practices enhances democratic values, promotes equity, and supports sustainable development for vibrant and cohesive communities.Unity and social cohesion are deeply interconnected and mutually reinforcing concepts. Unity refers to the state of being united or joined as a whole, particularly in terms of common goals, values, and identity. It implies a sense of togetherness and solidarity among individuals and groups within a community or nation. Unity is a fundamental component of social cohesion. When people feel united, they are more likely to trust, cooperate, and support one another, which are key elements of social cohesion. Unity and social cohesion mutually reinforce each other. Strong social cohesion can foster a sense of unity, and a united community is more likely to exhibit high levels of social cohesion.Unity often arises from shared values, goals, and a common identity. When individuals identify with a common cause or set of values, they are more likely to act in ways that promote social cohesion. A sense of collective purpose enhances unity and, in turn, strengthens social cohesion. Communities with a shared vision work together more effectively to achieve their goals, creating a cohesive society.Unity fosters trust among individuals and groups. When people feel united, they are more likely to trust one another, which is a critical aspect of social cohesion. Unity encourages reciprocal relationships where individuals support and help each other. These reciprocal actions strengthen social bonds and contribute to social cohesion.True unity includes all members of society, ensuring that everyone feels valued and included. Inclusive unity promotes social cohesion by reducing inequalities and ensuring that diverse groups are integrated into the social fabric. A sense of unity encourages equitable participation in community activities and decision-making processes, further enhancing social cohesion by ensuring that all voices are heard and considered.Unity helps mediate conflicts and reduce tensions within a community. When people are united, they are more likely to resolve disputes amicably, which maintains and strengthens social cohesion. During times of crisis or adversity, a united community stands together and supports its members. This solidarity enhances social cohesion by demonstrating mutual care and cooperation.Unity encourages active participation in community life. When individuals feel united, they are more likely to engage in community activities, volunteer work, and civic duties, all of which contribute to social cohesion. United communities engage in collaborative efforts to address common challenges and improve their collective well-being. This collaboration strengthens social ties and promotes a cohesive society.Countries with a strong sense of national identity often exhibit high levels of social cohesion. Shared symbols, traditions, and cultural practices foster unity and create a sense of belonging among citizens. Community projects, such as neighbourhood clean-ups, local festivals, or cooperative businesses, bring people together around a common goal. These projects enhance both unity and social cohesion by promoting teamwork and shared success. Social movements that advocate for common causes, such as civil rights, environmental protection, or social justice, create unity among diverse groups. This unity strengthens social cohesion by aligning efforts towards a shared vision of change.Diverse interests and identities within a society can lead to social fragmentation if not managed inclusively. Addressing these differences and finding common ground is essential for maintaining unity and social cohesion. Political, cultural, or economic polarization can undermine unity and social cohesion. Efforts to bridge divides and promote dialogue are crucial for overcoming polarization.Economic inequalities can erode social cohesion by creating divisions and reducing opportunities for unity. Promoting equitable policies and inclusive economic growth is vital for fostering social cohesion. Marginalization and exclusion of certain groups weaken unity and social cohesion. Ensuring that all members of society feel valued and included is necessary for a cohesive community.To promote Unity and Social Cohesion, governments and organizations should implement policies that promote inclusivity, equity, and equal opportunities. Ensuring that diverse groups are represented and have a voice in decision-making processes fosters unity and social cohesion. Encouraging open dialogue, community engagement, and collaborative problem-solving strengthens social bonds and promotes unity. Community events, public forums, and participatory initiatives can enhance social cohesion. Education systems should emphasize the importance of unity, diversity, and social cohesion. Promoting cultural competence, empathy, and civic responsibility through education builds a foundation for a cohesive society.Unity fosters trust, cooperation, and a sense of belonging, all of which are essential for social cohesion. In turn, social cohesion enhances unity by promoting shared values, inclusive participation, and collective well-being. Building and maintaining unity and social cohesion require inclusive policies, active community engagement, and a commitment to equity and justice. Together, they create a strong foundation for a stable, prosperous, and harmonious society.Unity and social cohesion often reinforce each other in a cyclical manner. Initial unity around a cause or goal can strengthen social cohesion through collaborative efforts and shared successes. This enhanced social cohesion, in turn, makes it easier to achieve unity in future endeavours. A community might unite to build a local park. This initial unity strengthens social bonds and trust (social cohesion). In the future, this cohesive community can more easily unite for other projects or challenges, creating a cycle of mutual reinforcement.When a community or nation faces a shared vision or a common challenge, such as a natural disaster, social movement, or national goal, unity can emerge as people rally together for a common cause. This unity can then lead to increased social cohesion as individuals and groups develop trust, solidarity, and cooperative behaviours. Civil rights movements or environmental campaigns often start with a unifying cause. As people unite around this cause, they build relationships, trust, and cooperation, leading to stronger social cohesion. In the face of natural disasters or external threats, communities often unite to respond to the crisis. This unity fosters trust, mutual support, and a sense of belonging, enhancing social cohesion.In communities or nations where strong social cohesion already exists, individuals and groups have established trust, shared norms, and mutual support. This social cohesion can then foster unity when a common goal or challenge arises, as people are already predisposed to work together effectively. In societies with high levels of social cohesion, characterized by trust, equity, and inclusive participation, unity is more easily achieved when needed. The existing social bonds make it easier for people to unite around new initiatives or respond collectively to challenges. Organizations or communities with a culture of collaboration and mutual respect often exhibit high social cohesion. When these groups face new goals or challenges, their established cohesion facilitates a seamless transition to unity.Unity and social cohesion are mutually reinforcing elements that together contribute to the strength and resilience of a community or nation. Building both unity and social cohesion requires ongoing efforts to promote trust, inclusivity, and shared values.In the next episode, we will discuss the relationship between socio-political tensions and social cohesion. We will briefly pay close attention to the socio-political tensions of large-scale developments of Indonesia's Strategic National Projects such as BSD City and PIK 2, biidhnillah."Seruni then sang a song,Every love made a mark on your bodyAnd you can see the reason whyAm I just a zombie?Am I just a zombie in this lonely world? *)
Citations & References:
- Francis Fukuyama, The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity, 1995, Free Press
- Francis Fukuyama, The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order, 1999, Profile Books
- Partha Dasgupta & Ismail Serageldin (Eds.), Social Capital: A Multifaceted Perspective, 2000, The World Bank
- Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, 2001, Touchstone
- Nicholas A. Christakis and James H. Fowler, Connected: The Surprising Power of Our Social Networks and How They Shape Our Lives, 2011, Little, Brown Spark
- Jonathan Haidt, The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion, 2013, Penguin Books
- Heather McGhee, The Sum of Us: What Racism Costs Everyone and How We Can Prosper Together, 2021, Random House Publishing
- Ezra Klein, Why We’re Polarized, 2020, Avid Reader Press
*) "Lonely World" written by K-391, Herman Gardarfve, Jens Hult, Julianne Aurora & Victor Crone
