War: An Islamic Perspective

In Islamic jurisprudence, there are several periods during which warfare is prohibited or strongly discouraged, and these restrictions reflect Islam's deep regard for sanctity, worship, and human dignity.

The most well-known prohibition concerns the four sacred months (al-ashhur al-hurum), which are explicitly mentioned in the Qur'an (9:36). These are Dhul-Qa'dah, Dhul-Hijjah, Muharram, and Rajab. During these months, the sanctity of life is held in especially high regard, and initiating armed conflict is categorically forbidden unless in direct self-defence. This ruling predates Islam itself, having been observed in Arabian tradition and subsequently confirmed and sanctified by Islamic revelation.

Closely linked to this is the period of Hajj season, which falls within Dhul-Hijjah. During the pilgrimage, the inviolability of Makkah and its surroundings (al-haram) is absolute. Fighting within the sacred precincts is forbidden at all times, not merely during Hajj, as affirmed in Surah al-Baqarah (2:191). The sanctity of the Haram extends this prohibition beyond the calendar and into geography itself.

Furthermore, Islamic scholars have broadly agreed that warfare is impermissible during active peace treaty periods (muddat al-hudna). Once a binding truce has been concluded between Muslim and non-Muslim parties, it must be honoured in full until its term expires or it is formally and publicly annulled—as was the precedent set by the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.

Additionally, war is forbidden when the enemy has laid down their arms and surrendered, or when they have formally sought asylum (aman). The Qur'an (9:6) commands that any polytheist who seeks protection must be granted safe passage until he has heard the word of God, after which he is to be conveyed safely to his place of security. Once protection is granted, hostility must cease entirely.

Finally, many jurists hold that conflict must be suspended whenever the continuation of war would bring greater harm than benefit — a condition rooted in the overarching principle of maslaha (public interest). If fighting serves no just purpose and only multiplies suffering, Islamic ethics demands that it be halted, regardless of any formal state of war.

In essence, Islam's restrictions on the timing of war are not mere ceremonial conventions; they constitute a coherent moral architecture that consistently subordinates the impulse towards conflict to the higher imperatives of justice, sanctity, and peace.

War is arguably one of the most complex and contentious phenomena in human history. Within the framework of Islamic teachings, the attitude towards armed conflict cannot be reduced to a simple binary of 'permissible' or 'forbidden'. Islam, as a comprehensive way of life and a mercy to all of creation (rahmatan lil 'alamin), has established a clear, detailed, and profoundly wise framework for understanding and regulating warfare.

Contrary to frequent misrepresentation, Islam places peace as its highest ideal. War, in the Islamic worldview, is not a goal in itself but rather a last resort, permitted only under very specific and stringent conditions. A sound understanding of this distinction is of vital importance in an age where religion is too often conflated with violence.

1. What Does War Mean in Islam?

In classical Islamic literature, war is referred to as al-harb (الحرب, meaning 'war') or al-qital (القتال, meaning 'fighting'). However, Islamic scholars most extensively examine the concept of jihad (الجهاد), which literally means 'striving' or 'exerting utmost effort'. It is essential to note that jihad encompasses a far broader scope than mere armed combat.

Islamic scholars have traditionally categorised jihad into several dimensions: the struggle against one's own ego and lower desires (jihad al-nafs), striving through speech and writing, striving through wealth and charitable giving, and armed struggle (qital). The Prophet (ﷺ) is reported to have declared, upon returning from the Battle of Badr, that the Muslims had returned from the 'lesser jihad' to the 'greater jihad' — that is, the internal struggle against oneself.

"A true believer does not commit acts of cruelty, behave indecently, or curse." (Narrated by al-Tirmidhi)

Armed conflict—qital—represents, but one narrow dimension of jihad, and it is sanctioned solely as a defensive response to a genuine threat, never as a tool of aggression or territorial conquest. Islam draws a firm distinction between lawful war (masyru') and unlawful war (ghairu masyru'), and the burden of proof for the former is considerable.

In Islamic jurisprudence, the distinction between lawful war (al-harb al-masyru') and unlawful war (al-harb al-ghairu masyru') is not merely a technical legal classification—it is a profound moral and theological boundary that reflects Islam's unwavering commitment to justice, human dignity, and the sanctity of life.

Lawful war in Islam is, at its core, a defensive and corrective instrument. It is sanctioned when a Muslim community has been directly and unjustly attacked, and no peaceful means of resolution remain available. In such circumstances, the Qur'an grants explicit permission to fight, as stated in Surah al-Hajj (22:39): 

"Permission to fight has been granted to those who have been wronged, and God is well able to give them victory." 

Equally, war is considered lawful when Muslims have been forcibly expelled from their homes and homelands without just cause, for the preservation of one's right to dwell in safety and practise one's faith is regarded as a fundamental human entitlement in Islamic ethics. Furthermore, lawful war may be waged in defence of communities and peoples who are being subjected to severe oppression and who have sought the assistance of the Muslim community, as God commands in Surah al-Nisa' (4:75): 

"And what is the matter with you that you do not fight in the cause of God and for the oppressed?"

Equally significant is the case in which a previously concluded peace treaty has been unilaterally and flagrantly violated by the opposing party—in such an instance, the resumption of hostilities is considered lawful, provided that the violation has been publicly and formally declared before any military action is taken, as was the practice of the Prophet (ﷺ). In all of these cases, however, the declaration of war must proceed from a legitimate authority, all diplomatic avenues must have been exhausted, and the conduct of the conflict must adhere strictly to the ethical boundaries laid down by Islamic law.

Unlawful war, by contrast, encompasses any armed conflict that is initiated or sustained in the absence of these foundational conditions. Among the most categorically forbidden forms of war is that which is waged for the purpose of territorial conquest or the expansion of political dominion, for Islam does not sanction the taking of land through force when no genuine injustice demands redress. Closely related to this is war motivated by economic greed—the seizure of another people's resources, wealth, or trade routes — which Islamic jurisprudence regards as an act of manifest oppression (zulm) and therefore wholly impermissible. Perhaps most critically, Islam forbids entirely any war whose stated or implicit purpose is the forced conversion of non-Muslims to Islam, for the Qur'an declares with unambiguous clarity in Surah al-Baqarah (2:256): 

"There is no compulsion in religion." 

Faith, in the Islamic understanding, must be freely chosen; it can never be imposed at the point of a sword. War is also unlawful when it is declared by individuals or non-state actors who lack the requisite political and religious authority, for as the scholars have consistently held, the power to initiate war is a matter of collective governance, not personal judgment. Equally forbidden is the continuation of war once the enemy has surrendered, sought peace, or requested asylum, for at that point the justification for hostilities has ceased entirely and any further violence would constitute pure aggression. Finally, war that is waged with disproportionate means—indiscriminate bombardment, the targeting of civilians, the destruction of crops, livestock, and places of worship—is also classified as unlawful, regardless of whether the original cause was just, because the transgression of ethical limits in the conduct of war invalidates the moral legitimacy of the conflict itself.

What unites these two categories and illuminates the boundary between them is the overarching Islamic principle that war is never an end in itself. It is, at best, a painful necessity—a last resort undertaken reluctantly in the service of justice. The moment it ceases to serve that purpose, or the moment it is pursued for any reason other than the removal of genuine oppression, it crosses the threshold from the lawful into the forbidden. As the great jurist Imam al-Sarakhsi observed in his classical work al-Mabsut, the foundational purpose of Islamic rules of war is not to glorify conflict but to constrain it—to ensure that even in the darkest of human circumstances, the light of moral accountability is never extinguished.

2. Who Are the Parties Involved?

A. Who Has the Authority to Declare War?

According to the majority of classical Islamic jurists, only a legitimate political authority (wali al-amr or imam) holds the right to declare war. Individual actors, non-state groups, and private citizens are not empowered to initiate armed conflict in the name of Islam. This principle demonstrates that Islamic law demands strict institutional legitimacy before any armed engagement may lawfully commence.

 

B. Who Is Protected Under Islamic Laws of War?

Islam affords explicit and unconditional protection to the following groups during armed conflict: women and children, the elderly and infirm, clergy and religious figures, farmers who do not participate in combat, traders and merchants, and ambassadors and envoys. The Prophet (ﷺ) declared in unequivocal terms:

"Do not kill a woman, a child, or an elderly person." (Narrated by Abu Dawud)

C. Who May Lawfully Be Fought?

Islam authorises the use of force solely against those who actively threaten or attack Muslim communities, or who violate established peace treaties. Enmity rooted purely in religious difference is not recognised in Islamic jurisprudence as a valid ground for initiating hostilities. This principle fundamentally distinguishes the Islamic conception of lawful war from that of many historical military traditions.

3. When Is War Permitted in Islam?

The Qur'an addresses the conditions permitting war with remarkable explicitness. In Surah al-Hajj (22:39–40), Allah grants permission to fight to those who have been wronged—those who have been driven from their homes without just cause. This was the first Qur'anic verse to permit fighting, and its context is unambiguously defensive.

The general conditions under which war is sanctioned in Islamic law include: when Muslims are directly attacked; when they are expelled forcibly from their homes; when a peace agreement is blatantly violated by the opposing party; and when an oppressed people formally seek assistance from the Muslim community.

"Fight in the way of God those who fight you, but do not transgress the limits…" (Qur'an, 2:190)

Islam categorically forbids war as a means of territorial expansion, the forced imposition of religious belief, or the seizure of resources. The phrase 'do not transgress the limits' in the above verse forms the scriptural foundation for the doctrine of proportionality in Islamic armed conflict—a principle that predates modern international humanitarian law by well over a millennium.

Furthermore, Islam requires that all avenues of peaceful resolution and negotiation must be exhausted before recourse to arms. If an adversary offers peace, that offer must be accepted, as established in Surah al-Anfal (8:61). The default position in Islamic ethics is always peace; war is the exception, not the rule.

4. In What Context Does War Occur in Islam?

Classical Islamic jurists developed a conceptual division of the world into domains, most notably Dar al-Islam (the realm of Islam) and Dar al-Harb (the realm of war). However, this classification is functional and dynamic in nature, not a rigid geographic boundary. Many contemporary scholars rightly emphasise that such concepts must be reinterpreted within the context of the modern international order, with its state sovereignty and treaty frameworks.

More significant than any geographic delineation is the fact that war in Islam is always contextually bound to concrete political and security conditions. It is not premised upon the boundaries of religious territories, but upon the presence of genuine threats and injustices that must be addressed.

In historical practice, the Prophet (ﷺ) and his companions engaged in armed conflict across various theatres—from Badr and Uhud to Khaybar—but always within the framework of responding to tangible threats, never out of territorial ambition. Even the conquest of Makkah (Fath al-Makkah) was accomplished peacefully, with minimal bloodshed, reflecting Islam's enduring preference for non-violent resolution.

5. Why Does Islam Permit War?

The fundamental reason Islam permits war—under strictly circumscribed conditions—is to uphold justice (al-'adl) and prevent oppression (al-zulm). Islam conceives of genuine peace not merely as the absence of armed conflict, but as a condition in which justice is upheld and the rights and dignity of all people are respected.

The Qur'an explains that were it not for God's permission to resist aggression, monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques—places in which Allah's name is abundantly remembered—would all have been destroyed (Qur'an, 22:40). This remarkable verse reveals that defensive warfare in Islam is not exclusively for the protection of Muslims, but for the preservation of freedom of worship for all of humanity.

"Persecution (fitnah) is worse than killing." (Qur'an, 2:191)

Beyond this, Islam also sanctions war for the purposes of: defending oneself and one's community from physical harm; liberating the oppressed (al-mustad'afin); restoring a violated treaty; and preventing greater social and political destabilisation.

Nevertheless, the ultimate criterion in all Islamic rulings — including those concerning war — is the principle of maslaha (public benefit) and the avoidance of mafsada (harm and corruption). Accordingly, even where the formal conditions for war are technically satisfied, if the conflict is expected to generate greater harm than benefit, it remains impermissible.

6. How Does Islam Regulate the Conduct of War?

This dimension represents one of Islam's most remarkable contributions to civilisation. Centuries before the Geneva Conventions (1864) or the codification of modern international humanitarian law, Islam had already established a comprehensive code of conduct for warfare. The Caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, radhiyallahu 'anhu, when despatching an army, famously issued ten commandments that became the cornerstone of Islamic military ethics:

First, do not act treacherously. Second, do not steal from the spoils of war before their proper distribution. Third, do not break your pledged word. Fourth, do not mutilate the bodies of the fallen. Fifth, do not kill children. Sixth, do not kill the elderly or women. Seventh, do not fell or burn palm trees. Eighth, do not cut down fruit-bearing trees. Ninth, do not slaughter livestock except for food. Tenth, you will pass by people in monasteries devoted to worship; leave them and their devotion in peace.

"Fight in the cause of Allah, but do not be harsh, do not act treacherously, do not mutilate, and do not kill children." (Narrated by Muslim)

A. The Principle of Proportionality

Islam forbids disproportionate retaliation. Indiscriminate attacks upon civilians, mass destruction, and the use of force beyond what is strictly necessary for defensive purposes are all categorically prohibited. This principle carries profound relevance in the context of modern armed conflict, where the boundary between combatants and non-combatants is frequently blurred.

 

B. Treatment of Prisoners of War

Islam imposes a clear obligation to treat prisoners of war humanely: they must be provided with adequate food and clothing, and all forms of torture are strictly forbidden. The Qur'an speaks with admiration of those who feed prisoners of war as an act of supreme virtue (Qur'an, 76:8), placing this act alongside feeding the hungry and the orphaned.

 

C. The Primacy of Peace

At every stage of conflict, Islam obligates the parties to keep the door to negotiation and reconciliation open. Even in the midst of active hostilities, if an enemy seeks peace, the offer must be accepted without hesitation. Islam recognises no doctrine of 'total war' aimed at the unconditional annihilation of an adversary. The cessation of hostilities, whenever possible, is always the preferred outcome.

Conclusion

IIslam holds a profoundly mature, balanced, and humane position on the subject of war. Islam is neither a religion of the sword that glorifies violence, nor a tradition of quietism that acquiesces to injustice. It is a middle path — a tradition that prioritises peace above all, yet does not shrink from upholding justice when circumstances compel it.

Misconceptions regarding the Islamic concepts of jihad and war are among the most consequential sources of inter-civilisational misunderstanding and conflict in the contemporary world. By engaging seriously with Islam's authentic sources—the Qur'an, the Hadith, and the rich heritage of classical Islamic jurisprudence—one discovers that Islam's teachings on warfare are not only compatible with, but in many respects anticipate, the foundational principles of modern international humanitarian law.

And Allah knows best the truth. May this little analysis serve as a contribution to greater understanding, and may it reinforce our shared appreciation of Islam as a religion that is, at its very core, a mercy to all of creation.

References

The Noble Qur'an. Various surahs as cited throughout.

Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Kitab al-Jihad wal-Siyar (The Book of Jihad and Military Expeditions).

Ibn Rushd (Averroes). Bidayat al-Mujtahid wa Nihayat al-Muqtashid [Distinguished Jurist's Primer]. Classical Islamic Comparative Jurisprudence.

Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah. Zad al-Ma'ad fi Hady Khayr al-'Ibad [Provisions for the Hereafter].

Wahbah al-Zuhayli. Athar al-Harb fi al-Fiqh al-Islami [The Effects of War in Islamic Jurisprudence]. Damascus: Dar al-Fikr.

Majid Khadduri. War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955.

Sohail H. Hashmi (ed.). Islamic Political Ethics: Civil Society, Pluralism, and Conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.

John Kelsay. Arguing the Just War in Islam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.

Bahasa